Gildersleeve's Latin grammar *// This is from http://www.archive.org/. *// Text is corrected as much as possible for my purpose. *// Numbers in [ ] are book pages. *// Latin phrases and words which are printed bold in the book are not bold here . *// So,those which I found are placed here at left side with one tab space. *// Japanese characters written by me are sometimes intermingled. GILDERSLEEVE'S LATIN GRAMMAR THIRD EDITION,REVISED AND ENLARGED BY B.L.GILDERSLEEVE PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY AND GONZALEZ LODGE ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE MACMILLAN AND CO.,LIMITED 1903 PREFACE. THE first edition of this LATIN GRAMMAR appeared in 1867,the second in 1872;the third edition,carefully revised and very much enlarged,is herewith presented to the public. In the preparation of this third edition the office of the senior collaborator has been chiefly advisory,except in the Syntax.In the syntax nearly everything that pertains to the history of usage has been brought together by Professor LODGE;but for all deviations from the theory of former editions we bear a joint responsibility. A manual that has held its place,however modest,for more than a quarter of a century,hardly needs an elaborate exposition of the methods followed;but as the new grammar embraces a multitude of details that were not taken up in the old grammar,it has been thought fit that Professor LODGE should indicate the sources of the notes with which he has enriched the original work. B.L.GlLDERSLEEVE. GONZALEZ LODGE. August 1,1895. THE following supplementary note may serve to embody a partial bibliography of the more important works used in this revision,and some necessary explanations of the method : Fairly complete bibliographies of works on Latin Etymology and Syntax may be found in REISIG'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft(new edition,by HAGEN,SCHMALZ,and LANDGRAF,1881-1888),and in the Lateinische Grammatik of STOLZ and SCHMALZ (in MULLER'S Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft; 3d edition,1890).Important also are the Grammars of KUHNER(1877,1878) * and ROBY(1881,1882);though many statements in both,but especially in the former,must be corrected in the light of more recent study.Some indications of more modern theories may be found in -------------------------------------------------------------------* A new Historical Grammar,by STOLZ,SCHMALZ,LANDGRAF,and WAQENEK,was announced by TKUBNEK in 1891 iv PREFACE. the Erlaeuterungen zur lateinischen Grammatik of DEECKE(1893). Many matters of importance both in Etymology and Syntax are treated in the Archiv fur lateinische Lexicographie,and the constructions with individual words are often well discussed in KREBS'Antibarbarus der lateinischen Sprache(6th edition,by SCHMALZ,1886). For the accentuation and pronunciation of Latin we have also CORSSEN'S Aussprache,Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischen Sprache(1868,1870),and SEELMANN'S Die Aussprache des Latein(1885). For the Etymology we must refer to BUCHELER'S Grundriss der lateinischen Declination(3d edition,by WINDEKILDE,1879) and to SCHWEIZER-SIDLER'S Lateinische Grammatik(1888);also to many articles in various journals,most of which are given by STOLZ.Indispensable is NEUE'S Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache,of which the second volume of the third edition has already appeared(1892) and the first parts of the third volume(1894),under the careful revision of WAGENEE; also GEOEGES'Lexikon der lateinischen Wortformen(1890). For the Formation of Words and the relation of Latin forms to those of the related languages we have HENRY'S Precis de Grammaire Comparee and BRUGMANN'S Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik,both now accessible in translations.On these,in connection with SCHWEIZERSIDLEE,the chapter on the Formation of Words has been based. In the historical treatment of the Syntax we must still rely in large measure on DRAEGER'S Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache (2d edition,1878,1881),faulty and inaccurate though it often is : many of the false statements have been corrected on the basis of more recent individual studies by SCHMALZ;but even SCHMALZ is not always correct,and many statements of his treatise have been silently emended in the present book.For the theoretical study of some problems of Latin Syntax HAASE'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (1880) should not be overlooked.Since the appearance of the second edition of SCHMALZ,in 1890,considerable progress has been made in the various journals and other publications,as may be seen from DEECKE'S summary in BURSIAN'S Jahresbericht for 1893.Every effort has been made to incorporate in this grammar the main results of these studies as far as practicable.We may also draw attention to the following important articles,among others,some of which are mentioned in the books above referred to : WOLFFLIN'S numerous articles in the Archiv;THIELMANN'S articles in the Archiv on habere with Perfect Participle Passive,and on the Reciprocal Relation;LANDGRAF'S articles on the Figura Etymologica,in the second volume of the Acta Seminarii Erlangensis,and on the Future Participle and the Final Dative,in the Archiv; BALE'S treatise on The Cum Constructions,attacking the theories of HOFFMANN(Lateinische Zeitpartikeln,1874) and LUBBERT(Die Syntax von Quom,1869), PREFACE.v HOFFMANN'S reply to HALE(1891),and WETZEL'S Der Streit zwischen HOFFMANN und HALE(1892);DAHL'S Die lateinische Partikel ut(1882),with GUTJAHR-PROBST'S Der Gebrauch von ut bei Terenz(1888);ZIMMERMANN'S article on quod und quia im alteren Latein(1880);SCHERER'S article on quando,in Studemund's Studien;MORRIS'S articles on the Sentence Question in Plautus and Terence in the A.J.P.(vols.x.and xi.);HALE'S articles on the Sequence of Tenses in the A.J.P.(vols.viii. and ix.),containing a discussion of the earlier Literature;ELMER'S articles on the Latin Prohibitive in A.J.P.(vol.xv.) A bibliography of the treatises on Prosody and Versification may be found in GLEDITSCH'S treatise in the second volume of MULLER'S Handbuch;this,with PLESSIS'Metrique Grecque et Latine(1889),has been made the basis of the chapter on Prosody;but in the treatment of early metres,regard has been had to KLOTZ(Altromische Metrik,1890),and to LINDSAY'S recent papers on the Saturnian in the A.J.P.(vol.xiv.).In the matter of the order of words we have followed WEIL'S treatise on the Order of Words,translated by SUPER(1887). The question of the correct measurement of hidden quantities is still an unsettled one in Latin;for the sake of consistency the usage of MARX,Huelfsbuchlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale in positionslangen Silben(2d edition,1889) has been followed. The quotations have been made throughout from the Teubner Text editions except as follows : Plautus is cited from the Triumvirate edition of RITSCHL;Vergil from the Editio Maior of RIBBECK;Ovid and Terence from the Tauchnitz Texts;Horace from the Editio Minor of KELLER and HOLDER;Lucretius from the edition of MUNRO; Ennius and Lucilius from the editions of L.MULLER;fragmentary Scenic Poets from the edition of RIBBECK.Special care has been taken to make the quotations exact both in spelling and wording;and any variation in the spelling of individual words is therefore due to the texts from which the examples are drawn. Where it has been necessary to modify the quotations in order to make them suitable for citation,we have enclosed within square brackets words occurring in different form in the text,and in parentheses words that have been inserted;where the passage would not yield to such treatment,Cf.has been inserted before the reference. We have not thought it necessary to add the references in the Prosody except in the case of some of the citations from early Latin. In the spelling of Latin words used out of quotation,as a rule u and v have been followed by o rather than by u;but here the requirements of clearness and the period of the language have often been allowed to weigh.Otherwise we have followed in the main BRAMBACH'S Huelfsbuchlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung(translation by MCCABE,1877). G.L. CONTENTS ETYMOLOGY. SECTION Letters and Syllables...................................... 1-15 Alphabet,1; Vowels,2,3; Diphthongs,4; Conso- nants,6,7;Phonetic Variations,8,9;Syllables,10, 11;Quantity,12-14;Accentuation,15. Parts of Speech............................................ 16 Inflection of the Substantive........................ 17-71 Definitions,18;Gender,19-21;Number,22; Cases,23-25;Declensions,26;Endings,27;First Declension,29,30;Second Declension,31-34;Third Declension,35-60;Fourth Declension,61,62;Fifth Declension,63,64;Greek Substantives,65,66;Ir- regular Substantives,67-71. Inflection of the Adjective........................ 72-90 Definition,72;First and Second Declension,73- 76; Pronominal Adjectives,76; Third Declension, 77-83;Irregular Adjectives,84,85;Comparison of Adjectives,86-90. Adverbs ........................................... 91-93 Formation of Adverbs,91,92;Comparison,93. Numerals............................................ 94-98 Cardinals,94;Ordinals,94;Distributives,97; Adverbs,98. Pronouns ............................................ 99-111 Personal,100-102;Determinative,103;Demon- strative,104;Relative,105;Interrogative,106;In- definites,107; Adjectives,108; Correlative,109-111. Inflection of the Verb ................................112-175 Definitions,112,113; Endings,114,115; Inflection of ease,116,117; of prodesse,118; of posse,119.Reg- ular Verbs,120-167; Division,120; Rules for forming Tenses,121.First Conjugation,122; Second Conju- gation,123,124; Third Conjugation,125,126; Fourth viii CONTENTS. SECTION Conjugation,127;Deponents,128;Periphrastic, 129; Notes,130,131.Formation of the Stems,132- 135; Change in Conjugation,136; List of Verbs, 137-167.Irregular Verbs,168-174; ire,169,2; quire, nequire,170; ferre,171; edere,172; fieri,173; velle, nolle,malle,174; Defective Verbs,175. Formation of Words ......................................176-200 Simple Words,179-192; Substantives,180,181; Adjectives,182; Substantives without Suffixes,183; Suffixes,184-189; Verbs,190-192;Compound Words, 193-200; Substantives,194-198; Verbs,199,200. SYNTAX. Simple Sentence ...........................................202-471 Subject,203,204; Predicate,205-209; Concord, 210,211; Voices,212-221.Tenses,222-252; Present, 227-230; Imperfect,231-234; Perfect,235-240; Plu- perfect,241; Future,242,243; Future Perfect,244, 245; Periphrastic,246-251; Tenses in Letters,252. Moods,253-283; Indicative,254; Subjunctive,255- 265;Imperative,266-275;Tenses in Moods and Verbal Substantives,276-283. Simple Sentence Expanded....................................284-471 Multiplication of the Subject ......285-287 Qualification of the Subject ......288-325 Adjectives,289-303; Numerals,292-295; Compara- tives and Superlatives,296-303: Pronouns,304-319; Personal.304; Demonstrative,305-307; Determina- tive and Reflexive,308-311;Possessive,312;Indefi- nite,313-319; Apposition,320-325; Predicative Attri- bution and Apposition,325. Multiplication of Predicate 326 Qualification of Predicate 327-449 The Cases 328-418 Accusative,328-343; Dative,344-359; Genitive, 360-383; Ablative,384-410; Locative,411; Preposi- tions,412-418; with Accusative,416; with Ablative, 417; with Accusative and Ablative,418. Infinitive 419-424 Subject,422; Object,423; Predicate,424. CONTENTS.ix SECTION Gerund and Gerundive 425-433 Genitive,428; Dative,429; Accusative,430; Abla- tive,431;with Prepositions,432,433. Supine 434-436 Accusative,435; Ablative,430. Participles 437,438 Adverbs 439-449 Negatives,441-449. Incomplete(Interrogative) Sentence 450-471 Direct Simple Questions,453-457; Direct Disjunc- tive Questions,458,459;Indirect Questions,460; Moods in Direct,402-466; Moods in Indirect,467. Compound Sentence ............................................472-670 Coordinate Sentence 473-503 Copulative,474-482; Adversative,483-491;Dis- junctive,492-497; Causal and Illative,498-503. Subordinate Sentences .......504-670 Moods in,508; Sequence of Tenses,509-519; Re- flexive in,520-522. Object Sentences 523-537 Introduced by quod,524,525;in Accusative and Infinitive,526,527,532-535; in Nominative and Infinitive,528; in Participle,536,537. Causal Sentences ........538-542 Introduced by quod,quia,etc.,539-541;by quod, with verbs of Emotion,542. Sentences of Design and Tendency ....543-558 Final,544-550; Pure Final,545; Complementary Final,546-549; After verbs of Fear,550. Consecutive,551; Pure Consecutive,552; Comple- mentary Consecutive,553-557; Exclamatory Ques- tions,558. Temporal Sentences 559-588 Antecedent Action,561-567; Iterative Action,566, 567; Contemporaneous Action,568-573; Subsequent Action,574-577;Sentences with cum,578-588. Conditional Sentences 589-602 Logical,595; Ideal,596; Unreal,597; Incomplete, 598-601;Of Comparison,602. Concessive Sentences ....603-609 x CONTENTS. SECTION Relative Sentences ..610-637 Concord,614-621;Tenses,622,623;Moods,624- 637. Comparative Sentences 638-644 Correlative,642;with atque or ac,643;with quam, 644. The Abridged Sentence 645-663 Historical Infinitive,647;Oratio Obliqua,648; Moods in,650-652; Tenses in,653-655; Conditional Sentences in,656-659 : Pronouns,660;Partial Ob- liquity,662,663. Participial Sentences 664-670 Arrangement of Words and Clauses ...............................671-687 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric .................................688-700 Principal Rules of Syntax ...Pp.437-444 PROSODY. Quantity ............................................702-717 General Rules,702-706 : of Final Syllables,707- 713; of Stem Syllables,714;of Compounds,715;in- Early Latin,716,717. Figures of Prosody ...................................718-728 Versification ........................................729-827 Definition,729-754;Versus Italicus,755;Saturnian Verse,756; Iambic Rhythms,757-767; Trochaic Rhythms,768-776;Anapaestic Rhythms,777-782; Dactylic Rhythms,783-789;Logacedic Rhythms, 790-805;Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms,806-814; Ionic Rhythms,815-819;Compound Verses,820- 823;Cantica,824,825;Metres of HORACE,826,827. PAGES Appendix ............................................491-493 Roman Calendar,Roman Weights and Measures, Roman Money,Roman Names. Index of Verbs....................................... 494-502 General Index ........................................503-546 LATIN GRAMMAR. ETYMOLOGY. Alphabet. 1.THE Latin alphabet has twenty-three letters : A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z REMARKS.1.The sounds represented by C and K were originally distinct,C having the sound of G,but they gradually approximated each other,until C supplanted K except in a few words,such as Kalendae,Kaeso,which were usually abbreviated,Kal.,K.The original force of C is retained only in C.(for Gaius) and Cn.(for Gnaeus). 2.J,the consonantal form of I,dates from the middle ages.V represented also the vowel u in the Latin alphabet;and its resolution into two letters V for the consonant,and U for the vowel also dates from the middle ages.For convenience,V and U are still distinguished in this grammar. 3.Y and Z were introduced in the time of Cicero to transliterate Greek υ and ζ.In early Latin was represented by u(occasionally by i or oi),and ζ by ss or s. Z had occurred in the earliest times,but had been lost,and its place in the alphabet taken by G,which was introduced after C acquired the sound of K. NOTE.The Latin names for the letters were : a,be,ce,de,e,ef,ge,ha,i,ka,el,em,en,o,pe,qu(= cu),er,es,te,u,ex(ix),to be pronounced according to the rules given in 3,7.For Y the sound was used,for Z the Greek name(zeta). Vowels. 2.The vowels are a,e,i,o,u,(y);and are divided : 1.According to their quality(i.e.,the position of the organs used in pronunciation),into guttural(or back),a,o,u;palatal(or front),e,i,(y). 2.According to their quantity or prolongation(i.e.,the time required for pronunciation),into long ( -- );short (v) [2 VOWELS--DIPHTHONGS--CONSONANTS.] REMARK.Vowels whose quantity shifts in poetry are called common(see 13),and are distinguished thus : by preference short; by preference long. 3. Sounds of the Vowels. a = a in father. o = o in bone. e = e in prey. u = oo in moon. i = i in caprice. y = u in sur(French),German ue. REMARK.The short sounds are only less prolonged in pronunciation than the long sounds,and have no exact English equivalents. Diphthongs. 4.There are but few diphthongs or double sounds in Latin.The theory of the diphthong requires that both elements be heard in a slur. The tendency in Latin was to reduce diphthongs to simple sounds; for example,in the last century of the republic ae was gliding into e,which took its place completely in the third century A.D.Hnce arose frequent variations in spelling : as glaeba and gleba,sod; so oboedire and obedire,obey;faenum(foemun) and fenum,hay. ae = aye(ah-eh).ei = ei in feint(drawled). oe = oy in boy. eu = eu in Spanish deda(eh-oo). au = ou in our. (ui = we,almost). NOTE.Before the time of the Gracchi we find ai and oi instead of ae and oe. 5.The sign (Diaeresis Greek =separation) over the second vowel shows that each sound is to be pronounced separately;aer,air; Oenomaus,aloe. Consonants. 6.Consonants are divided : 1.According to the principal organs by which they are pronounced,into Labials(lip-sounds) : b,p,(ph),f,v,m. Dentals(tooth-sounds): d,t,(tb.),1,n,r,s. Gutturals(throat-sounds) : g,c,k,qu,(ch),h,n(see 7). NOTE.Instead of dental and guttural,the terms lingual and palatal are often used. 2.According to their prolongation,into A.Semi-vowels : of which l,m,n,r,are liquids(m and n being nasals). h is a breathing. s is a sibilant. [CONSONANTS-PHONETIC-VARIATIONS.3] B.Mutes : to which belong P-mutes,p, b,(ph),f, labials. T-mutes,t, d,(th), dentals. K-mutes,k, c, qu, g,(ch), gutturals. Those on the same line are said to be of the same organ.. Mutes are further divided into Tenues(thin,smooth) : p,t,k,c,qu, hard(surd). Mediae(middle) : b,d,g, soft(sonant). [Aspiratae(aspirate,rough): ph,th,ch,] aspirate. Those on the same line are said to be of the same order. The aspirates were introduced in the latter part of the second century B.C.in the transliteration of Greek words,and thence extended to some pure Latin words;as,pulcher,Gracchus. 3.Double consonants are : z = dz in adze;x=cs(ks),gs;i and u between two vowels are double sounds,half vowel,half consonant. Sounds of the Consonants. 7.The consonants are sounded as in English,with the following exceptions : C is hard throughout = k. Ch is not a genuine Latin combination(6,2).In Latin words it is a k;in Greek words a kh,commonly pronounced as ch in German. G is hard throughout,as in get,give. H at the beginning of a word is but slightly pronounced;in the middle of a word it is almost imperceptible. I consonant(J) has the sound of a broad y;nearly like y in yule. N has a guttural nasal sound before c,g,q,as in anchor,anguish. Qu = kw(nearly);before o,qu = c.In early Latin qu was not followed by u.Later,when o was weakened to u,qu was replaced by c; thus quom became cum.Still later qu replaced c,yielding quum. R is trilled. S and X are always hard,as in hiss,axe. T is hard throughout;never like t in nation. U consonant(V) is pronounced like the vowel,but with a slur.In the third century A.D.it had nearly the sound of our w.In Greek it was frequently transliterated by Ou;so Oualerios = Valerius. Phonetic Variations in Vowels and Consonants. 8.Vowels. 1.Weakening.In the formation of words from roots or stems short vowels show a tendency to weaken;that is,a tends to become e [4 PHONETIC VARIATIONS.] and then i,or o and then u,while o tends towards e or i,and u towards i This occurs most frequently in compound words,to a less degree in words formed by suffixes.Diphthongs are less frequently weakened and long vowels very rarely.The principal rules for these changes are as follows,but it must be remembered that to all there are more or less frequent exceptions : A.--1.In the second part of compound words,and in reduplicated words,the root-vowel a is weakened to e,which usually passes over into i in open syllables(11,R.),and often to u before l and labial mutes : conscendo(scando);concido(cado);desulto(salto);fefelli(fallo). 2.As final vowel of the stem a is weakened in the first part of a compound word,usually to i,rarely to o or u: aquilifer(aquila-);causidicus (causa-).3.In or before suffixes,a becomes i: domitus(doma-). NOTE.A frequently resists change,especially in verbs of the First and Second Conjugations : as,separare(parare);circumiacere(iacere);so satisfacere (facere) and others. E.--1.In the second part of compound words,root vowel e is usually retained in a close(11,R.) syllable,and weakened to i in an open syllable;but it is invariably retained before r : inflecto(flecto);obtineo(teneo);adverto(verto).2.In or before suffixes,and in the final syllable of a word,it also becomes i : genitor(gene-);undecim(decem). I--.At the end of a word i is changed to e : mare(mari). O.--1.In composition final stemvowel o is usually weakened to i; before labials sometimes to u : agricola(agro-);aurufex(usually aurifex).2.In suffixes,and in final syllables,it is weakened to i : amicitia (amico-);gracilis(also gracilu-s). U.--In composition final stemvowel u is usually weakened to i; the same weakening occurs sometimes within a word or before a suffix : manifestus(also manu-festus);lacrima(early lacruma). AE,AU.--In the second part of a compound word root-diphthong ae is usually weakened to i,but often there is no change;au is occasionally changed to u : exquiro(quaero);concludo(claudo). 2.Omission.--Vowels are frequently omitted both in simple and compound words,either within the word(syncope) or at the end(apocope) : dextera and dextra;princeps(for primceps,from primiceps);pergo (for perrego);ut(uti);neu(neve). 3.Epenthesis.--Vowels are sometimes inserted to ease the pronunciation,but usually before liquids or in foreign words : ager(agro-) see 31;Daphine(= Daphne);drachuma(= drachma). 4.Assimilation.--Two vowels in adjoining syllables tend to become like each other; this assimilation is usually regressive(i.e.,of the first to the second),especially when l separates them;it is rarely progressive.Compare facilis with facul,familia with famulus,bene with bonus. [PHONETIC VARIATIONS.5] 5.A vowel before a liquid tends to become u,less often o or e : adulescens and adolescens; vulgus and volgus; decumus(decem); compare tempus with temporis;peperi(from pario),etc. 9.Consonants. 1.Assimilation.--When two consonants come together in Latin,they tend to assimilate one to the other.This assimilation is usually regressive;sometimes it is progressive.It is either complete,that is,the two consonants become the same;or partial,that is,the one is made of the same order or same organ as the other.These changes occur both in inflection and in composition,but they are especially noteworthy in the last consonant of prepositions in composition. Scriptum for scrib-tum(regressive partial);accedere for ad-cedere (regressive complete);cursum for cur-tum(progressive partial);celerrimus for celersimus(progressive complete). 2.Partial Assimilation.(a) The sonants g and b,before the surd t,or the sibilant s,often become surds(c,p );the surds p,c,t before liquids sometimes become sonants(b,g,d);the labials p,b before n become m; the labial m before the gutturals c,q,g,h,i(j),the dentals t,d,s,and the labials f,v,becomes n;the dental n before labials p,b,m,becomes m;rectum(for reg-tum);scripsi(for scrib-si);segmentum (for sec-mentum);somnus(for sop-nus);princeps(for prim-ceps). NOTE.Similar is the change of q(qu) to c before t or s : coctum(for coqu-tum). (b) After l and r,t of the suffixes tor,tus,tum,becomes s by progressive assimilation : cursum(for cur-tum). 3.Complete Assimilation.There are many varieties,but the most important principle is that a mute or a liquid tends to assimilate to a liquid and to a sibilant : puella(puer);currere(for cur-sere);cessi (for ced-si);corolla(corona),etc. 4.Prepositions.-- Ab takes the form a before m or v,and in afui; appears as au in aufero,aufugio;as abs before c,t;as as before p. Ad is assimilated before c,g,l,p,r,s,t,with more or less regularity; before gn,sp,sc,st,st often appears as a. Ante appears rarely as anti. Cum appears as com before b,m,p; con before c,d,f,g,i,q,s,v;co before gn,n; assimilated sometimes before l and r. Ex becomes e before b,d,g,i(j),l,m,n,r,v;ef or ec,before f. In usually becomes im before b,m,p;before l,r it is occasionally assimilated; the same holds good of the negative prefix in. Ob is usually assimilated before c,f,g,p;appears as o in omitto,operio, obs in obsolesco,and os in ostendo. Sub is assimilated before c,f,g,p,r;appears as sus in a few words,as suscipio;occasionally su before s,as suspicio. Trans sometimes becomes tra before d,i(j),n; tran before s. Amb-(inseparable) loses b before a consonant,and am is sometimes assimilated. Circum sometimes drops m before i. Dis becomes dif before f; dir before a vowel; [6 PHONETIC VARIATIONS--SYLLABLES.] di before consonants,except c,p,q,t,s,followed by a vowel,when it is usually unchanged. The d of red and sed is usually dropped before consonants. NOTE.In early Latin assimilation is much less common than in the classical period. 5.Dissimilation. To avoid the harshness of sound when two syllables begin with the same letter,the initial letter of the one is often changed;this is true especially of liquids,but occasionally of other letters : singularis(for singu-la-lis); meridie(for medi-die). NOTE.This principle often regulates the use of -brum or -bulum,and of -crum or -culum in word formation(181,6) : compare periculum with simulacrum. 6.Omission.--(a) When a word closes with a doubled consonant or a group of consonants,the final consonant is regularly dropped in Latin;sometimes after the preceding consonant has been assimilated to it.In the middle of a word,after a long syllable,ss and ll are simplified;ll is sometimes simplified after a short vowel,which is then lengthened if the syllable is accented(compensatory lengthening);but if the syllable is unaccented,such lengthening need not take place.In this case other doubled consonants may also be simplified. fel(for fell); lac(for lact); vigil(for vigils); lapis(for lapids,lapiss); misi(for missi); villa and vilicus; but currus and curulis. NOTE.X is retained,even after l and r,as in calx,arx;also ps,bs,as in stirps,urbs;ms is found in hiems only. (b) In the tendency to easier pronunciation consonants are often dropped both at the beginning and in the middle of a word : stimulus(for stigmulus);pastor(for pasctor);aio(for ahio);natus(for gnatus,retained in early Latin,rarely later);latus(for tlatus),etc. 7.Epenthesis.--Between m and l,m and s,m and t,a p is generated : exemplum(eximo);compsi(como);emptus(emo). 8.Metathesis or transposition of consonants occurs sometimes in Latin,especially in Perfect and Supine forms : cerno;Pf .crevi,etc. Syllables. 10.The syllable is the unit of pronunciation;it consists of a vowel,or a vowel and one or more consonants. A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels and diphthongs. In dividing a word into syllables,a consonant,between two vowels,belongs to the second : amo,I love; lixa,a sutler,従軍商人. [SYLLABLES QUANTITY.7] Any combination of consonants that can begin a word (including mn,under Greek influence) belongs to the following vowel;in other combinations the first consonant belongs to the preceding vowel : asper,rough; faustus,lucky; libri,books; amnis,river. REMARKS.1.The combinations incapable of beginning a word are (a) doubled consonants : siccus,dry; (b) a liquid and a consonant : almus,fostering; ambo,both; anguis,snake; arbor,tree. 2.Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts were separate words : abigo,I drive off; respublica,commonwealth. 11.The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate ( ultima,last); the next to the last the penult( paene,almost, and ultima);the one before the penult,the antepenult ( ante,before, and paenultima). REMARK.A .syllable is said to be open when it ends with a vowel; close,when it ends with a consonant. Quantity. 12.1.A syllable is said to be long by nature,when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : mos,custom; caelum,heaven. REMARKS.1.A vowel before nf,ns,gm,gn,is long by nature : Infelix,unlucky; mensa,table; agmen,train; agnus,lamb. In many cases,however,the n has disappeared from the written word;so in some substantival terminations : os(Acc.Pl.,2d decl.),us(Acc.Pl.,4th decl.);in adjectives in osus( formosus,shapely, for formonsus);in the numerical termination esimus(= ensimus).See 95,N.5. 2.Before i consonant(j) a vowel is long by nature : Pompeius,Pompey; except in compounds of iugum,yoke(bi-iugus,two-horse), and in a few other words. NOTE.--From about 134 to about 74 B.C.a,e,u,were often represented by as,ee uu;i by ei.From the time of Augustus to the second century i was indicated by a lengthened i.From Sulla's time until the third century long vowels(rarely,however,i) were indicated by an Apex('). 2.A syllable is said to be long by position,when a short vowel is followed by two or more consonants,or a double consonant : ars,art; collum,neck; abrumpo,I break off; per mare,through the sea; nex,murder. [8 ACCENTUATION.] 3.A syllable is said to be short when it contains a short vowel,which is not followed by two or more consonants : locus,place; tabula,picture. REMARK.--A vowel is short by nature when followed by another vowel,or by nt,nd: deus,God; innocentia,innocence; amandus,to be loved. 13.A syllable ending in a short vowel,followed by a mute with l or r,is said to be common( anceps,doubtful) : tenebrae,darkness. REMARK.--In prose such syllables are always short.In poetry they were short in early times,common in the Augustan period. 14.Every diphthong,and every vowel derived from a diphthong,or contracted from other vowels,is long: saevus,cruel; conclude,I shut up(from claudo,I shut); cogo(from co-ago),I drive together. Accentuation. 15.1.Dissyllabic words have the accent or stress on the penult : equos( = equus),horse. 2.Polysyllabic words have the accent on the penult,when the penult is long;on the antepenult,when the penult is short or common : mandare,to commit; mandere,to chew; integrum,entire; circumdare,to surround; superstites,survivors. REMARKS.1.The little appendages(enclitics), que,ve,ne, add an accent to the ultimate of words accented on the antepenult : luminaque,"and lights"; fluminave,"or rivers"; vomerene ? from a ploughshare ? Dissyllables and words accented on the penult are said to shift their accent to the final syllable before an enclitic : egomet,I indeed; amareve,or to love,; but it is more likely that the ordinary rule of accentuation was followed. 2.Compounds(not prepositional) of facere and dare retain the accent on the verbal form : calefacit,温める venumdare.sell 3.Vocatives and genitives of substantives in ius of the second declension,as well as genitives of substantives in ium,retain the accent on the same syllable as the nominative : Vergili. NOTE.Other exceptions will be noted as they occur.In the older language the accent was not bounded by the antepenult : accipio (accipio) , concutio(concutio).揺さぶる [PARTS OF SPEECH INFLECTION.9] Parts of Speech. 16.The Parts of Speech are the Noun(Substantive and Adjective),the Pronoun,the Verb,and the Particles(Adverb,Preposition,and Conjunction),defined as follows : 1 .The Substantive gives a name : vir,a man; Cocles,Cocles; donum,a gift. 2.The Adjective adds a quality to the Substantive : bonus vir,a good man. 3.The Pronoun points out without describing : hic,this; ille,that; ego,I. 4.The Verb expresses a complete thought,whether assertion,wish,or command; amat,he loves; amet,may he love; ama,love thou ! 5.The Adverb shows circumstances. 6.The Preposition shows local relation. 7.The Conjunction shows connection. REMARKS.1.Substantive is short for noun-substantive,and adjective for noun-adjective.Substantives are often loosely called nouns. 2.The Interjection is either a mere cry of feeling : ah! ah ! and does not belong to language,or falls under one of the above-mentioned classes. 3.The Particles are mainly mutilated forms of the noun and pronoun. NOTES.1.The difference between substantive and adjective is largely a difference of mobility;that is,the substantive is fixed in its application and the adjective is general. 2.Noun and pronoun have essentially the same inflection;but they are commonly separated,partly on account of the difference in signification,partly on account of certain peculiarities of the pronominal forme. Inflection. 17.Inflection(Inflexio,bending) is that change in the form of a word(chiefly in the end) which shows a change in the relations of that word.The noun,pronoun,and verb are inflected;the particles are not capable of further inflection. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension,and nouns and pronouns are said to be declined. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation,and verbs are said to be conjugated. [10 THE SUBSTANTIVE GENDER.] The Substantive. 18.A Substantive is either concrete or abstract;concrete when it gives the name of a person or thing;abstract when it gives the name of a quality;as amicitia,friendship. Concrete substantives are either proper or common : Proper when they are proper,or peculiar,to certain persons,places,or things: Horatius,Horace; Neapolis,Naples; Padus,Po. Common when they are common to a whole class : dominus,a lord; urbs,a city; amnis,a river. Gender of Substantives. 19.For the names of animate beings,the gender is determined by the signification;for things and qualities,by the termination. Names of males are masculine;names of females,feminine. Masculine : Romulus; Iuppiter; vir,man; equus,horse. Feminine : Cornelia; Iuno; femina,woman; equa,mare. 20.Some classes of words,without natural gender,have their gender determined by the signification : 1.All names of months and winds,most names of rivers,and many names of mountains are masculine;as : Aprilis,April,the opening month; Aquilo,the north wind; Albis,the River Elbe; Athos,Mount Athos. REMARKS.1.Names of months,winds,and rivers were looked upon as adjectives in agreement with masculine substantives understood( mensis,month; ventus,wind; fluvius,amnis,river). 2.Of the rivers, Allia, Lethe, Matrona, Sagra, Styx are feminine; Albula, Acheron, Garumna vary,being sometimes masculine,sometimes feminine. 3.Of the mountains, Alpes,the Alps, is feminine;so,too,sundry (Greek) names in a(G.ae),e(G.es) : Aetna(usually), Calpe, Cyllene, Hybla, Ida, Ossa(usually), Oeta(usually), Rhodope, Pholoe, Pyrene, and Carambis, Peloris. Pelion and Soracte(usually),and names of mountains in a(G.orum),as Maenala(G.Maenalorum),are neuter. II.Names of countries(terrae,fem.),islands(insulae,fem.),cities(urbes,fem.),plants(plantae,fem.),and trees [GENDER NUMBER,11] (arbores,fem.),are feminine: Aegyptus,Egypt;Rhodus,Rhodes;pirus,a pear-tree;abies,a fir-tree. REMARKS.1.Names of countries and islands in us(os)(Gr.i) are masculine,except Aegyptus,Chius,Chersonesus,Cyprus,Delos,Epirus,Lemnos,Lesbos,Peloponnesus,Rhodus,Samos,Bosporus(the country). 2.Many Greek names of cities follow the termination.Towards the end of the republic many feminine names change the ending -us to -um and become neuter : Abydus and Abydum, Saguntus and Saguntum. 3.Most names of trees with stems in -tro(N.-ter) are masculine : oleaster,wild olive; pinaster,wild pine. So also most shrubs : dumus,bramble-bush; rhus,sumach.漆 Neuter are acer,maple; laser,a plant; papaver,poppy(also masc.in early Latin); robur,oak; siler,willow; siser,skirret(occasionally masc.)、ムカゴニンジン; suber,cork-tree; tuber,mushroom. III.All indeclinable substantives,and all words and phrases treated as indeclinable substantives,are neuter : fas,right; a longum,a long; scire tuum,thy knowing; triste vale,a sad "farewell." 21.1.Substantives which have but one form for masculine and feminine are said to be of common gender : civis,citizen(male or female); comes,companion; iudex,judge. 2.Substantiva mobilia are words of the same origin,whose different terminations designate difference of gender : magister,master,teacher; magistra,mistress; servus,serva,slave(masc.and fem.); victor,victrix,conqueror(masc.and fem.). 3.If the male and female of animals have but one designation, mas,male, and femina,female, are added,when it is necessary to be exact : pavo mas(masculus),peacock; pavo femina,peahen. These substantives are called epicene (epikoina,utrique generi communia,common to each gender). Number. 22.In Latin there are two numbers : the Singular,denoting one;the Plural,denoting more than one. REMARK.The Dual,denoting two,occurs in Latin only in two words(duo,two; ambo,both),in the nominative and vocative of the masculine and neuter. [12 CASES.] Cases. 23.In Latin there are six cases : 1.Nominative(Case of the Subject). Answers : who ? what ? 2.Genitive(Case of the Complement). Answers : whose ? whereof ? 3.Dative(Case of Indirect Object or Personal Interest). Answers : to whom ? for whom ? 4.Accusative(Case of Direct Object). Answers : whom ? what ? 5.Vocative(Case of Direct Address). 6.Ablative(Case of Adverbial Relation). Answers : where ? whence ? wherewith ? NOTE.These six cases are the remains of a larger number.The Locative(answers : where ?),is akin to the Dative,and coincident with it in the 1st and 3d Declensions; in the 2d Declension it is lost in the Genitive;it is often blended with the Ablative in form,regularly in syntax.The Instrumental(answers: wherewith?),which is found in other members of the family,is likewise merged in the Ablative. 24.1.According to their form,the cases are divided into strong and weak : The strong cases are Nominative,Accusative,and Vocative.The weak cases are Genitive,Dative,and Ablative. 2.According to their syntactical use,the cases are divided into Casus Recti,or Independent Cases,and Casus Obliqui,or Dependent Cases.Nominative and Vocative are Casus Recti,the rest Casus Obliqui. 25.The case-forms arise from the combination of the caseendings with the stem. 1.The stem is that which is common to a class of formations. NOTES.1.The stem is often so much altered by contact with the case-ending,and the case-ending so much altered by the wearing away of vowels and consonants,that they can be determined only by scientific analysis.So in the paradigm mensa,the stem is not mens,but mensa,the final a having been absorbed by the ending in the Dative and Ablative Plural mensis.So -d,the ending of the Ablative Singular,has nearly disappeared,and the locative ending has undergone many changes(e,ei,i,e).The "crude form" it is often impossible to ascertain. 2.The root is an ultimate stem,and the determination of the root belongs to com [DECLENSIONS.13] parative etymology.The stem may be of any length,the root was probably a monosyllable. In penna the stem is penna-; in pennula,pennula-; in pennatulus,pennatulo-; the root is PET(petna,pesna,penna),and is found in petere,to fall upon,to fly at; Greek,petmai,petron;English,feather. 2.The case-endings are as follows,early forms being printed in parenthesis : SG.N.V.Wanting or in.f.-s;n.-m.PL.N.V.-es(eis,is); -i; n.-a. G.-is(-os,-us,-es);-i. G.-um(om); -rum(som). D.-i(-e,-ei). D.-bus;-is. Ac.-m,-em. Ac.-s(for -ns);n.-a. Ab.Wanting(or -d);-e. Ab.-bus;-is. Declensions. 26.There are five declensions in Latin,which are characterised by the final letter of their respective stems(stemcharacteristic). For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also improperly distinguished by the ending of the Genitive Singular. STEM CHARACTERISTIC.GENITIVE SINGULAR. I. a(ā). ae. II. o. i. III.i,u,a consonant. is. IV. u. us. V. e. ei REMARK.The First,Second,and Fifth Declensions are called Vowel Declensions;the Third and Fourth,which really form but one,the Consonant Declension,i and u being semi-consonants. 27.The case-endings in combination with the stem-characteristics give rise to the following systems of terminations : SINGULAR. I. II. III. N. a. us(os);wanting;um(om). s;wanting. G. ae(as,āī,ai). i(ei). is(us,es). D. ae(ai). o(oi). i(ei,i). Ac. am. um(om). em,im. V. a. e;wanting;um(om). s. Ab. a(ad). o(od). e,i(ed,id). [14 FIRST DECLENSION.] IV. V. N.V. us;u. os. G. us(uos,uis). ei e(es). D. ui,u(uei). ei,e. Ac. um; u. em. Ab. u. e. PLURAL. I. II. III. N.V. ae. i(oe,e,ei);a. os(eis,is);a,ia. G. arum. um(om),orum. um,ium. D.A.is(eis);abus. is(eis),ibus. ibus. Ac. as. os; a. is,es;a,ia. IV. V. N.V. us(ues,uus);ua. es. G. num. erum. D.A. ubus,ibus. ebus. Ac. us; ua. es. NOTE.Final -s and -m are frequently omitted in early inscriptions. 28.General Rules of Declension. I.For the strong cases : Neuter substantives have the Nominative and the Vocative like the Accusative;in the Plural the strong cases always end in a. In the Third,Fourth,and Fifth Declensions the strong cases are alike in the Plural. The Vocative is like the Nominative,except in the Singular of the Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us. II.For the weak cases : The Dative and the Ablative Plural have a common form. FIRST DECLENSION. 29.The stem ends in a,which is weakened from an original a.The Nominative has no ending. SG.N. mensa(f .),the table, a table. G. mensae, of the table, of a table. D. mensae, to,for the table, to,for a table. Ac. mensam, the table, a table. V. mensa, O table ! table ! Ab. mensa, from,with,by,the table, from,with,by,a table. [SECOND DECLENSION.15] PL.N. mensae, the tables, tables. G. mensarum, of the tables, of tables. D. mensis, to,for the tables, to,for tables. Ac. mensas, the tables, tables. V. mensae, O tables! tables! Ab. mensis, from,with,by,the tables, from,with,by,tables. REMARKS.1.The early ending of the Gen.,as,found in a few cases in early poets,is retained in the classical period(but not in CAESAR or LIVY) only in the form familias,of a family, in combination with pater,father, mater,mother, filius,son, filia,daughter, viz.: paterfamilias, materfamilias, filius familias, filia familias. 2.The Loc.Sing,is like the Genitive: Romae,at Rome; militiae,abroad. 3.The Gen.Pl.sometimes takes the form -um instead of -arum; this occurs chiefly in the Greek words amphora(amphora,measure of tonnage), and drachma,franc--(Greek coin). The poets make frequent use of this form in Greek patronymics in -da,-das,and compounds of -cola(from colo,I inhabit) and -gena(from root gen,beget). 4.The ending -abus is found(along with the regular ending) in the Dat.and Abl.Pl.of dea,goddess,and filia,daughter.In late Latin the use of this termination becomes more extended. NOTES.--1.A very few masc.substantives show Nom.Sing,in as in early Latin. 2.A form of the Gen.Sing,in ai,subsequent to that in as,is found in early inscriptions,and not unfrequently in early poets,but only here and there in classical poetry(VERG.,A.,3,354,etc.) and never in classical prose. 3.The early ending of the Dat.ai(sometimes contracted into a),is found occasionally in inscriptions throughout the whole period of the language. 4.The older ending of the Abl.,ad,belongs exclusively to early Latin.Inscriptions show eis for is in Dat.and Abl.PL,and once as in the Dat.Plural. 30.Rule of Gender.Substantives of the First Declension are feminine,except when males are meant. Hadria,the Adriatic,is masculine. SECOND DECLENSION. 31.The stem ends in o,which in the classical period is weakened to u,except after u(vowel or consonant),where o is retained until the first century A.D.In combination with the case-endings it merges into o or disappears altogether. In the Vocative(except in neuters) it is weakened to e. The Nominative ends in s(m.and f.) and m(n.).But many masculine stems in which the final vowel,o,is preceded by r,drop the(os) us and e of the Nominative and Vocative,and insert e before the r if it was preceded by a consonant. [16 SECOND DECLENSION.] 32.1.Stems in -ro.The following stems in -ro do not drop the(os) us and e of the Nom.and Voc.: erus,master; hesperus,evening star; icterus,jaundice:黄疸 iuniperus,juniper; morus,mulberry; numerus,number; taurus,bull; virus,venom;毒 umerus,shoulder; uterus,womb. NOTE.Socerus is found in early Latin.Plautus uses uterum(n.) once. 2.In the following words the stem ends in -ero and the e is therefore retained throughout : adulter,adulterer; gener,son-in-law; Liber,god of wine; puer,boy; socer,father-in-law; vesper,evening; and in words ending in -fer and -ger,from fero,I bear,and gero,I carry,as, signifer,standard-bearer, armiger,armor-bearer . Also Iber and Celtiber(names of nations) have in the Plural Iberi and Celtiberi, 33.Hortus(m.),garden; puer(m.),boy;ager(m.),field;bellum(n.),war;are thus declined : SG. N. hortus, puer, ager, bellum, G. horti, pueri, agri, belli, D. horto, puero, agro, bello, Ac. hortum, puerum, agrum, bellum, V. horte, puer, ager, bellum, Ab. horto. puero, agro. bello. PL. N. horti, pueri, agri, bella, G. hortorum, puerorum, agrorum, bellorum, D. hortis, pueris, agris, bellis, Ac. hortos, pueros, agros, bella, V. horti, pueri, agri, bella, Ab. hortis. pueris. agris. bellis. REMARKS.1.Stems in -io have Gen.Sing,for the most part in i until the first century A.D.,without change of accent : ingeni(N.ingenium),of genius,Vergili,of Vergil.See 15,R.3. 2.Proper names in -ius(stems in -io) have Voc.in i,without change of accent : Antoni, Tulli, Gai, Vergili. Filius,son, and genius,genius, form their Voc.in like manner : fili,geni. In solemn discourse -us of the Nom.is employed also for the Vocative.(See Liv.1.24,7.) So regularly deus,God ! 3.The Loc.Sing,ends in i(apparent Genitive),as Rhodi,at Rhodes, Tarenti,at Tarentum. 4.In the Gen.Pl.-um instead of -orum is found in words denoting coins and measures;as, nummum,of moneys(also -orum) = sestertium,of sesterces; denarium(occasionally -orum); talentum(occasionally -orum); tetrachmum; medium(also -orum),of measures; iugerum; medimnum; stadium(also -orum). Likewise in some names of persons : deum(also orom); [THIRD DECLENSION.17] fabrum(in technical expressions;as praefectus fabrum,otherwise -orum); liberum(also -orum); virum(poetical,except in technical expressions,as triumvirum); socium(also -orum). Some other examples are poetical,rare or late. 5.The Loc.PL is identical with the Dative : Delphis,at Delphi. 6. Deus,God, is irregular.In addition to the forms already mentioned,it has in Nom.PL dei,dii,di; in Dat.and Abl.PL deis,diis,dis. NOTES.1.The ending -ei for -i in the Gen.Sing,is found only in inscriptions subsequent to the third Punic War. 2. Puer,boy,forms Voc.puere in early Latin. 3.The original Abl.ending -d belongs to early inscriptions. 4.In early inscriptions the Nom.PL ends occasionally in es,eis,is : magistres (for magistri) vireis(for viri). The rare endings oe and e (ploirume for plurimi) and the not uncommon ending ei belong to the same period. 5.Inscriptions often show eis for is in Dat.and Abl.Plural. 34.Rule of Gender.Substantives in -us are masculine; in -um neuter. EXCEPTIONS.Feminine are : 1st.Cities and islands,as, Corinthus, Samus. 2d.Most trees,as, fagus,beech;ブナ pirus,pear-tree. 3d.Many Greek nouns,as, atomus,atom; dialectus,dialect; methodus,method; paragraphus,paragraph; periodus,period. 4th. alvus,belly(m.in PLAUT.); colus(61,N.5),distaff(also m.);糸巻棒 humus,ground; vannus,wheat-fan.唐箕 Neuters are : pelagus,sea; virus,venom; vulgus,the rabble(sometimes masculine).大衆 THIRD DECLENSION. 35.1.The stem ends in a consonant,or in the close vowels i and u. 2.The stems are divided according to their last letter,called the stem-characteristic,following the subdivisions of the letters of the alphabet : I.Consonant Stems. II.Vowel Stems. A.Liquid stems,ending in l,m,n,r. 1.Ending in i. B.Sibilant stems,ending in s. 2.Ending in u, {1.Ending in a P-mute,b,p. (Compare the Fourth C.Mute stems,{2.Ending in a K-mute,g,c. Declension.) {3.Ending in a T-mute,d,t. 36.1.The Nominative Singular,masculine and feminine,ends in s,which,however,is dropped after l,n,r,s,and combines with a K-mute to form x.The final vowel of the stem undergoes various changes. [18 THIRD DECLENSION.] The Vocative is like the Nominative. In the other cases,the endings are added to the unchanged stem. 2.Neuters always form : The Nominative without the case-ending s. The Accusative and Vocative cases in both numbers like the Nominative. The Nominative Plural in a. Notes on the Cases. 37.Singular. 1.GENITIVE.In old Latin we find on inscriptions the endings -us(Gr.-o) and -es. 2.DATIVE.The early endings of the Dat.are -ei and -e.These were succeeded by I after the second century B.C.,8 being retained in formulas like iure dicundo (Liv.,42,28,6),in addition to the usual form. 3.ACCUSATIVE.The original termination -im,in stems of the vowel declension,loses ground,and stems of this class form their Acc.more and more in -em,after the analogy of consonant stems.For the classical usage see 57,R.i. 4.ABLATIVE.In inscriptions of the second and first centuries B.C.we find -ei,-i.and -e.But -ei soon disappears,leaving e and I.In general e is the ending for the consonant stems and I for the vowel.But as in the Acc.,so in the Abl.,the e makes inroads on the i,though never to the same extent.(See 57,R.2.) On the other hand,some apparently consonant stems assume the ending i.Thus some in -as,-atis: hereditati(200 B.C.),aetati(rare); liti(rare),supellectill(classical; early e);also the liquid stems which syncopate in the(Jen.,as imber.The ending -d is rare and confined to early inscriptions. 5.LOCATIVE.Originally coincident in form with the Dat,the Loc.of the Third Declension was finally blended with Abl.,both in form and in syntax.In the following proper names the old form is frequently retained : Karthagini,at Carthage,Sulmoni,at Sulmo,Lacedaemoni,at Lacedaemon,Sicyoni,Troezeni,Anxuri,Tiburi.Also Acherunti.In the case of all except Anxur,Tibur,Acheruns,the regular form is more common. The following Loc.forms of common nouns are found : heri,loci,noctu(principally in early Latin),orbi(Cic.),peregri(early Latin),praefiscini(early Latin),ruri,temperi(the usual form in early Latin),vesperi.In all cases the Abl.form in e is also found. 38.Plural. 1.NOMINATIVE.Early Latin shows -eis,-is in the masc.and feminine.The latter was usually confined to vowel stems,but also occurs occasionally in consonant stems (ioudicis).Later the ending was -es for all kinds of stems. 2.GENITIVE.The ending -um,uniting with the vowel in vowel stems,gives -ium.But many apparently consonant stems show their original vowel form by taking -ium :(1) Many fem,stems in -tat-(N.tas) with -ium as well as -um.(2) Monosyllabic and polysyllabic stems in -t,-c,with preceding consonant.(3) Monosyllables in -p and -b,sometimes with,sometimes without,a preceding consonant.(4) Stems in -ss-;see 48,R. 3.ACCUSATIVE.Old Latin shows also -eis.The classical form is -es for consonant and -is for vowel stems.But -es begins to drive out -is in some vowel stems and wholly supplants it in the early Empire.On the other hand,some apparently original consonant stems show -is in early Latin,but the cases are not always certain. [CONSONANT STEMS.19] I.-CONSONANT STEMS. A.Liquid Stems. 1.LIQUID STEMS IN l. 39.Form the Nominative without s and fall into two divisions* : A.Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel : 1.-al,-alis : sal(with compensatory lengthening),salt;Punic proper names like Adherbal,Hannibal. 2.-il,-ilis : mugil(mugilis is late),mullet;ボラ pugil(pugilis in VARRO),boxer; vigil,watchman. -il,-ilis : sil,ochre; Tanaquil(with shortened vowel),a proper name. 3 -ol,-olis : sol,sun. 4.-ul,-ulis : consul,consul; exsul,exile; praesul,dancer. B.Two neuter substantives with stems in -ll,one of which is lost in the Nominative : mel,mellis,honey; fel,fellis,gall.胆汁 SG.N.consul,consul(in.). PL.N.consults,the consuls. G.consults, G.consulum, D.consuli, D.consulibus, Ac.consulem, Ac.consules, V.consul, V.consules, Ab.consule. Ab.consulibus. Rules of Gender.-i.Stems in -l are masculine. EXCEPTIONS : Sil,ochre,黄土 and sal,salt(occasionally,but principally in the Sing.),are neuter. 2.Stems in -ll are neuter. 2.LIQUID STEMS IN m. 40.Nominative with s.One example only : hiems,hiemps,winter(f.);Gen v hiemis,Dat.,hiemi,etc. 3.LIQUID STEMS IN n. 41.Most masculine and feminine stems form the Nominative Singular by dropping the stem-characteristic and changing a preceding vowel to o. * In the following enumerations of stem-varieties,Greek substantives are as a rule omitted. [20 THIED DECLENSION.] Some masculine and most neuter stems retain the stemcharacteristic in the Nominative and change a preceding i to e. The following varieties appear : 1.-en,-enis : the masculine substantives lien,splen,spleen; renes (pl.),kidneys. 2.-o -inis : homo,man; nemo,no one; turbo,whirlwind; Apollo,Apollo. Also substantives in -do(except praedo,G.-onis,robber);and in -go(except harpago,Gr.-onis,grappling-hook; ligo,G.-onis,mattock ); as, grando,hail; virgo,virgin. -en,inis : the masc.substantives flamen,priest; oscen(also f.),divining bird; pecten,comb; musical performers, cornicen, fidicen, liticen, tibicen, tubicen. Also many neuters : as nomen,name. 3.-o(in early Latin o,in classical period weakened),-onis : leo,lion; and about seventy others. -o,-onis : Saxo,Saxon(late). 4.Irregular formations : caro,G.carnis,flesh; Anio,G.Anienis,a river; Nerio,G.Nerienis,a proper name. Sanguis,blood,and pollis,flour, drop the stem characteristic and add s to form nominative;G. sanguinis,pollinis. 42. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. SG.N. leo,lion(m.). imago,likeness(f.) nomen,name(n.) G. leonis, imaginis, nominis, D. leoni, imagini, nomini, Ac.leonem, imaginem, nomen, V. leo, imago, nomen, Ab.leone, imagine, nomine, PL.N. leones, imagines, nomina, G. leonum, imaginum, nominum, D. leonibos, imaginibus, nominibus, Ac.leones, imagines, nomina, V. leones, imagines, nomina, Ab.leonibus. imaginibus. nominibus. NOTE.Early Latin shows homonem,etc.,occasionally. 43.Rules of Gender.1.Substantives in -C are masculine,except caro,flesh, and those in -do,-go,and -io. EXCEPTIONS.-Masculine are cardo,hinge; ordo,rank; harpago,grapplinghook; ligo,mattock; margo,border(occasionally fem,in late Latin);and concrete nouns like pugio,dagger, titio,firebrand, vespertilio,bat. 2.Substantives in -en(-men) are neuter.See exceptions,41,i,2. [CONSONANT STEMS.21] 4.LIQUID STEMS IN r. 44.Form Nominative without s. Stems fall into the following classes : 1.-ar,-aris: salar,trout; proper names like Caesar, Hamilcar; the neuters baccar,a plant; iubar,radiance; nectar,nectar. -ar,aris: Lar,a deity. -ar,aris : Nar(ENN.,VERG.),a river. -ar,arris : far(n.) spelt.小麦 2.-er,-eris : acipenser,a fish; agger,mound; anser,goose; asser,pole; aster,a plant; cancer,the disease; carcer,prison; later,brick; mulier(f .),woman; passer,sparrow; tuber(m.and f.),apple; vesper,evening(68,10); vomer,plowshare(47 ,2). The neuters acer,maple; cadaver,dead body; cicer,pea; laser,a plant; laver,a plant; papaver,poppy; piper,pepper; siler,willow; siser,skirret; suber,cork; tuber,tumor;腫物 uber,teat;乳首 [verber],thong.鞭 -er,-ris : four words, accipiter,hawk; frater,brother; mater,mother; pater,father. Also some proper names,as Diespiter, Falacer, and the names of the months, September, October, November, December. Also, imber,shower, linter,skiff,小舟 uter,bag, venter,belly, which were probably vowel stems originally(see 45,R.i). -er,-eris : aer,air; aether,ether. -er,-eris : ver,spring. 3.-or,-oris : arbor(f.),tree(stem originally in -os); some Greek words in -tor,as rhetor,rhetorician; slave names in -por,as Marcipor; the neuters : ador,spelt; aequor,sea; marmor,marble. -or,-oris : very many abstract words,as amor,love; color,colour; clamor,outcry; soror,sister; uxor,wife; these may come from stems in os(see 47,4); also verbals in -tor,as victor. 4.-ur,-uris : augur,augur; furfur,bran; turtur,dove; vultur,vulture; lemures(pl.),ghosts, and a few proper names; also the neuters fulgur,lightning; guttur,throat; murmur,murmur; sulfur,sulphur. -ur,-uris; fur,thief. 5.Four neuters, ebur,ivory; femur,thigh; iecur,liver; robur,oak, show Gen.in -oris; two of these,femur,iecur,have also the irregular forms feminis and iecineris,iecinoris,iocinoris. Iter,way, has G.itineris; and supellex,furniture, has G.supellectilis. 45. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.labor,toil(m.) labores, pater,father(m.), patres, G.laboris, laborum, patris, patrum, D.labori, laboribus, patri, patribus, Ac.laborem, labores, patrem, patres, V.labor, labores, pater, patres, Ab.labore, laboribus. patre. patribus. [22 THIRD DECLENSION.] REMARKS.1. imber,shower, linter,skiff(小舟), uter,bag, venter,belly, show the vowel nature of their stems by having Gen.Pl.in -ium. imber has also sometimes Abl.Sing,in i.(See 37,4.) 2. Robur,strength, also forms a Nom.robus(47,4),and vomer,ploughshare,vomis(47,2). NOTE. Arbor, and many stems in -or,were originally stems in -s;the s became r (47) between two vowels in the oblique cases,and then reacted upon the Nominative. But many Nominatives in -os are still found in early Latin;and some are still retained in the classical times : arbos(regularly in VERG.,frequently in LUCR.,HOR.,Ov.), honos(regularly in VERG.,commonly in Cic.,LIVY), and others. 46.Rules of Gender.1.Substantives in -er and -or are masculine.2.Substantives in -ar and -ur are neuter. EXCEPTIONS.Masculine are salar,trout, and proper names in -ar; augur,augur; furfur,bran; names of animals in -ur and a few proper names in -ur. Feminine are arbor,tree; mulier,woman; soror,sister; uxor,wife. Neuter are acer,maple; ador,spelt; aequor,sea; cadaver,dead body; cicer,pea; iter,way; laser,a plant ; laver,a plant; marmor,marble; papaver,poppy; piper,pepper; siler,willow; siser,skirret; suber,cork; tuber,tumor; fiber,teat; ver,spring; [verber],thong(ひも). B.-Sibilant Stems. 47.The Nominative has no additional s,and changes in masculines e to i,and in neuters e or o to u before s. In the oblique cases,the s of the stem usually passes over,between two vowels,into r(rhotacism). There are the following varieties of stems : 1.-as,-aris : mas,male. -as,-dsis : vas(n.),vessel. -as,-assis : as(m.),a copper(vowel long in Nom.by compensatory lengthening),and some of its compounds(with change of vowel),as bes,semis. 2.-es,-erist Ceres,Ceres. -is,-eris : cinis,ashes; cucumis,cucumber(see 57,R.i), pulvis(occasionally pulvis),dust; vomis,ploughshare(see 45,R.2). -us,-eris : Venus,and occasionally pignus,pledge(see 4). 3.-is,-iris : glis,dormouse(動物ヤマネ). 4.-os,-osis : old Latin ianitos,(ianitor),doorman labos,(labor) clamos(clamor,see 45,N.). -os,-ossis : os(n.),bone. -os,-or is : flos,flower; glos,sister-in-law; lepos,charm; mos(m.),custom; -os(n.),mouth; ros,dew. -us,-oris : corpus,body; decus,grace; pignus,pledge, and twelve others;on robus (see 45,R.2). 5.-us,-uris: Ligus,Ligurian. -us,-uris: tellus(f.),earth; mus(m.),mouse; the neuters: crus,leg; ius,right; pus,pus(膿); rus,country; tus,incense. 6.aes,aeris,brass. [CONSONANT STEMS.23] 48.SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.A.V. genus,kind(n.), genera, corpus,body(n.), corpora, G. generis, generum, corporis, corporum, D. generi, generibus, corpori, corporibus, Ab. genere. generibus. corpore. corporibus. REMARK.As,a copper,and os,bone,form the Gen.PL in -ium,after the usage of vowel stems(see 38,2).So also mus,mouse. 49.Rule of Gender.Masculine are substantives in -is (-eris),and -os,-oris: except os,mouth(G.oris), which is neuter. Neuter are substantives in -us(G.-eris,-oris),and in -us (G.-uris);except tellus,earth(G.telluris),which is feminine; and the masculines, lepus,hare(G.leporis); mus,mouse(G.muris). C.Mute Stems. 50.All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in the Nominative.Before s a P-mute is retained,a K-mute combines with it to form x,a T-mute is dropped. Most polysyllabic mute stems change their final vowel i into e in the Nominative. The stems show variations as follows : X 51.Stems in a P-mute. 1.-abs,-abis : trabs,beam; Arabs. -aps,-apis : [daps],feast. 2.-ebs,ebis : plebs,commons. 3.-eps,-ipis : princeps,chief,and fourteen others. -ips,-ipis : stips,dole. 4.-ops,-opis : [ops],power. 5.-eps,upis : auceps,fowler(野鳥猟者),and the old Latin manceps,contractor. 6.-rbs,-rbis : urbs,city. 7.-rps,-rpis : stirps,stock. SG. N. princeps,chief(m.), PL. principes, G. principis, principum, D. principl, principibus. Ac. principem, principes, V. princeps, principes, Ab. principe. principibus. 52.Stems in a K-mute. 1.-ax,-acis: fax,torch,and many Greek words in -ax, Atax,proper name, -ax,-acis : fornax,furnace; limax,snail; pax,peace; and Greek cordax,trochaic meter thorax.breast plate [24 THIED DECLENSION.] 2.-ex,-ecis : faenisex,mower; nex,murder; [prex],prayer; [resex],stump. -ex,-ecis : allex(also allec),brine(塩水); vervex,wether(去勢羊). -ex,-egis : grex,herd; aquilex,water-inspector. -ex,-egis : interrex; lex,law; rex,king. 3.-ex,-icis : auspex,soothsayer,and about forty others. -ex,-igis : remex,rower. -ix,icis : cervix,neck,and about thirty others; verbals in -ix,as victrix. -ix,-icis : appendix,appendix,and ten others. -ix,-igis : strix,screech-owl;also many foreign proper names,as Dumnorix,which may,however,be forms in -ix,-igis. 4.-ox,-ocis : celox,cutter;小舟 vox,voice. -ox,-ocis : Cappadox,Cappadocian. -ox,-ogis : Allobrox,Allobrogian. 5.-ux,-ucis: crux,cross; dux,leader; nux,nut. -ux,-ucis: lux,light; ballux,gold-dust; Pollux. -ux,-ugis : coniux(-unx),spouse. -ux,-ugis : frux,fruit. 6.-rx,-rcis : arx,citadel; merx,wares(商品). -lx,-lcis : falx,sickle; calx,heel,lime. -nx,-ncis : lanx,dish; compounds of -unx,as quincunx,and a few names of animals; phalanx has G.phalangis. 7.Unclassified : nix(G.nivis),snow; bos(G.bovis;see 71),ox; [faux] (G.faucis),throat; faex(G.faecis),dregs. SG. N. rex,king(m.). PL. reges, G. regis, regum, D. regi, regibus, Ac. regem, reges, V. rex, reges, Ab. rege, regibus. 53.Stems in a T-mute 1.-as,-atis : many feminine abstracts,as aetas,age; some proper names,as Maecenas.-as,-atis : anas,duck. -as,-adis : vas,bail;バケツ lampas,torch. 2.-es,-etis: indiges,patron deity(守護神); interpres,interpreter; praepes,bird; seges,crop; teges,mat. -es,-etis : abies,fir; aries,ram; paries,wall. -es,-etis : quies,quiet; requies,rest. -es,-edis : pes,foot,and its compounds. -es,-edis : heres,heir; merces,hire. 3.-es,-itis : antistes,overseer; caespes,sod(芝),and some fifteen others, -es,-idis : obses,hostage; praeses,protector. -is,-itis : lis,suit. -is,-idis : capis,bowl; cassis,helmet,net and nearly forty others,mostly Greek. 4.-os,-otis : cos,whetstone; dos,dowry; nepos,grandson; sacerdos,priest. -os,-odis : custos,guard. 5.-us,-utis : glus,glue, and some abstracts : iuventus,youth; salus,safety; senectus,old age; servitus,servitude; virtus,manliness. -us,-udis : pecus,sheep. -us,-udis : incus,anvil; palus,marsh; subscus,tenon(ほぞ). [CONSONANT STEMS.25] 6.-aes,-aedis : praes,surety(保証). -aus,-audis : laus,praise; fraus,fraud. 7.-is,-itis : puls,porridge. -ns,-ntis : infans,infant; dens,tooth; fons,fountain; mens,mountain; frons,brow; pons,bridge; gens,tribe; lens,lentil; mens,mind; rudens,rope; torrens,torrent. -s,-ntis : latinised Greek words like gigas,giant. -rs,-rtis : ars,art; cohors,cohort, fors,chance; Mars; mors,death; sors,lot. 8.Unclassified : cor(G.cordis),heart; nox(G.noctis),night; caput (G.capitis),head; lac(G.lactis),milk. SG.N.aetas,age,(f.). PL. aetates, SG. pes,foot(m.). PL. pedes, G. aetatis, aetatum, pedis, pedum, D. aetati, aetatibus, pedi, pedibus, Ac. aetatem, aetates, pedem, pedes, V. aetas, aetates, pes, pedes, Ab. aetate, aetatibus. pede, pedibus. 54.Many substantives of this class were originally vowel stems (see 56),and show their origin by having the termination -ium in the Gen.Pl.and -i in the Abl.Singular.Some not originally vowel stems do the same.(See 38,2.) Monosyllabic mute stems,with the characteristic preceded by a consonant,have the Gen.PL in -ium : urbium,of cities; arcium,of citadels; montium,of mountains; partium,of parts; noctium,of the nights. But -um is also found in gentum(ATTIUS), partum(ENNIUS); so always opum. Monosyllabic mute stems,with characteristic preceded by a long vowel or diphthong,vary : dot-ium,lit-ium,fauc-iuni,fraud-um(-ium),laud-um(-ium).But praed-um,vocum. Monosyllabic mute stems with characteristic preceded by a short vowel have -um;but fac-ium,nuc-um(-ium),niv-ium(-um). The polysyllabic stems in -nt and -rt have more frequently -ium,as clientium(-um),of clients; cohortium(-um),of companies. So adulescentium(-um),amantium(-um),Infantium(-um),parentum(-ium),serpentium(-um),torrentium(-um);rudentum(-ium);but only quadrantum. Of other polysyllabic stems feminine stems in -at have frequently both -um and -ium,as aetatum and aetatium,civitatum and civitatium,etc.; the rest have usually -um : but artifex,(h)aruspex,extispex,iudex,supplex,coniux,remex,and usually fornax have -ium.Forceps,manceps,municeps,princeps have -um.Palus has usually paludium. NOTES.1.The accusative lentim from [lens] is occasionally found,and partim from pars,as an adverb. 2.Sporadic ablatives in -i occur as follows : animanti(Cic.), bidenti(Lucr.), tridenti(SIL.,VERG.),capiti,consonanti(gram.),heredi(inscr.),legi(inscr.),lenti(TITIN.,COL.),luci(early),menti(COL.),occipiti(PERS.,Aus.),pad (VARRO),parti,rudenti(VITR.).sorti,torrenti(SEN.). [26 THIED DECLENSION.] 55.Rule of Gender.Mute stems,with Nominative in s,are feminine. 1.Exceptions in a k-mute., Masculines are substantives in -ex,-ex,-ix,and -unx;except cortex,bark, forfex,shears, frutex,shrub, imbrex,tile, latex,fluid, obex,bolt, silex,flint, varix,varicose vein(静脈瘤), which are sometimes masculine,sometimes feminine;and faex,dregs, forpex,tongs, lex,law, nex,slaughter, vibex,weal,and forms of [prex],prayer,which are feminine. calx,heel,and calx,chalk, are sometimes masculine,sometimes feminine. 2.Exceptions in a t-mute. Masculine are substantives in -es,-itis,except merges(f.),sheaf(束); also pes,foot,and its compounds; paries,wall; lapis,stone. Masculines in -ns are : dens,tooth,and its compounds; fons,spring; mons,mountain; pons,bridge,; rudens,rope; torrens,torrent; also some substantivised adjectives and participles. Neuters are only : cor,heart, lac,milk,and caput,head. II.-VOWEL STEMS. 1 .Vowel Stems in i. 56.Masculines and feminines form their Nominative in s. Some feminines change,in the Nominative,the stemvowel i into e. Neuters change,in the Nominative,the stem-vowel i into e.This e is generally dropped by polysyllabic neuters after l and r. Stems in i have Genitive Plural in -ium. Neuter stems in i have the Ablative Singular in i,and Nominative Plural in -ia. The varieties of stems are : 1.-is,-is : nearly one hundred substantives,like civis,citizen. 2.-es,-is : thirty-five,like vulpes,fox. Some of these have also variant nominatives in -is in good usage. 3.-e,-is : some twenty neuters,as mare,sea. 4.,-is : twenty-four neuters,which form Nominative by dropping the stem characteristic and shortening the preceding vowel : animal,-alis,animal; calcar(G-.calcaris),spur. 5.For substantives in -er,-ris,see 44,2.Irregular is senex,(G.senis;see 57,R.3),old man. [VOWEL STEMS.27] SG.N.collis,hill, turris,tower.vulpes,fox. mare,sea.animal,living being. G.collis, turris, vulpis, maris, animalis, D.colll, turri, vulpi, mari, animali, Ac.collem, turrim(em), vulpem, mare, animal, V.collis, turris, vulpes, mare, animal, Ab.colle, turri(e), vulpe, mari, animali, PL N.colles, turres, vulpes, maria, animalia, G.collium, turri-um, vulpium, marum, animalium, D.collibus, turri-bus, vulpibus, maribus, animalibus, Ac.collis(es), turris(es), vulpis(es), maria, animalia, V.colles, turres, vulpes, maria, animalia, Ab.collibus. turri-bus. vulpibus. maribus. animalibus. 57.REMARKS.1.The proper ending of the Acc.Sing,-im,is retained always in amussis,物差し, buris,ploughtail cucumis,cucumber(see 47,2), futis,a watervessel mephitis,malaria ravis,しわがれ声 rumis,throat sitis,thirst tussis,cough vis;power and in names of towns and rivers in -is,as Neapolis, Tiberis; usually in febris,fever puppis,船尾 pelvis,洗面器 restis,rope securis,斧 turris;tower occasionally in bipennis,two-edged clavis,鍵 cratis,まぐわ cutis,skin lens(lentis),レンズマメ(see 54,N.1), messis,harvest navis,ship neptis,granddaughter praesaepis,enclosure sementis,seed strigilis.へら 2.The Abl.in -i is found in substantives that regularly have -im in Acc.(except perhaps restis) : also not unfrequently in amnis, avis, bipennis, canalis, civis, classis, finis(in formulas), fustis, ignis(in phrases), orbis, sementis, strigilis, unguis; occasionally in anguis,へび bilis,黄疸 clavis,鍵 collis, convallis,険しい谷 corbis,: messis, neptis; regularly in neuters in e,al,and ar,except in rete,and in the towns Caere, Praeneste. NOTE.So also the adjectives of this class,when used as substantives by ellipsis : annalis(sc.liber,book),chronicle; natalis(sc.dies,day),birthday; Aprilis(sc. mensis,month), and all the other months of the Third Declension : Abl., annali, natali, Aprili, Septembri,etc. But iuvenis,young man; and aedilis,aedile, have Abl., iuvene, aedile; adjectives used as proper nouns have generally Abl.in e,as, Iuvenalis,Iuvenale. 3.In the Gen.PL,instead of the ending -ium,-um is found always in canis,dog, iuvenis,young man, panis,bread, senex,old, strues,heap, volucris,bird; usually in apis,bee, sedes,seat, vates,bard; frequently in mensis,month. On imber,etc.,see 45,R.i.Post-classical and rare are ambagum, caedum, cladum, veprum, and a few others; marum(the only form found) occurs once. 4.In the Nom.PL -eis and -is are found in early Latin.So occasionally in consonant stems(see 38,i),but in classical times such usage is doubtful. 5.The proper ending of the Acc.PL,-is(archaic,-eis),is found frequently in the classical period along with the later termination -es,which supplants -is wholly in the early empire.On the other hand,-is for -68 in consonant stems is confined to a few doubtful cases in early Latin. [28 THIRD DECLENSION.] 58.Rule of Gender.1.Vowel stems,with Nominative in -es are feminine;those with Nominative in -is are partly masculine,partly feminine. Masculine are: amnis,river(f.,early); antes(pl.) rows; axis,axle; buris,ploughtail; casses(pl.),toils; caulis,stalk; collis,hill; crinis,hair; ensis,glaive;剣 fascis,fagot;束 follis,bellows;ふいご funis,rope(f .,LUCR.); fustis,cudgel;棍棒 ignis,fire; manes(pl.),Manes; mensis,month; mugil(is),mullet;ボラ orbis,circle; panis,bread; postis,door-post; torris,.firebrand;燃え木 unguis,nail; vectis,lever; vermis,worm. Common are : callis,footpath , canalis,canal; clunis,haunch;しり corbis,basket; finis,end; retis,net(also rete,n.); sentis(usually pl.),bramble;いばら scrobis,ditch; torquis(es),necklace; toles(pl.),goitre; vepres(pi-),bramble. REMARK.Of the names of animals in -is,some are masculine; tigris,tiger(fem,in poetry); canis,dog(also fem.); piscis,fish;others feminine : apis,tee; avis,bird; ovis,sheep; felis,cat(usually feles). 2.Vowel stems,with Nominative in -e,-al,-ar,are neuter. 2.Vowel Stems in u. 59.Of stems in u,the monosyllabic stems,two in number,belong to the Third Declension. SG.N. grus,crane(f.)PL. grues G. gruis gruum D. grui gruibus Ac. gruem grues V. grus grues Ab. grue gruibus. Sus,swine(commonly f.),usually subus,in Dat.and Abl.Plural. TABLE OF NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE ENDINGS op THE THIRD DECLENSION. The * before the ending denotes that it occurs only in the one word cited. 60. A.NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A LIQUID. NOM. GEN. NOM. GEN. -al -ali-s animal, animal. -ar *-arr-is far, spelt. -al-is Hannibal, proper name. -er -er-is anser, goose. -al *-al-is sal, salt. -r-is pater, father. -el -ell-is mel, honey. *-iner-is iter, journey. -il -il-is pugil, boxer. -er *-er-is ver, spring. -il-is Tanaquil, proper name. -or -or-is color, colour. -ol *-ol-is sol, the sun. -or-is aequor, expanse. -ul -ul-is consul, consul. *-ord-is cor, heart. -en -en-is renes(pl.) kidneys. -ur -ur-is fulgur, lightning. -en in-is nomen, name. -or-is robur, oak. -ar -ari-s calcar, spur. -ur -ur-is fur, thief. -ari-s nectar, nectar. [VOWEL STEMS.29] B.NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH s,OR x(cs,gs). NOM.GEN. NOM.GEN. -as *-as-is vas, dish. -is *-lt-is puls, porridge. *-ar-is mas, male.m(p)s *-m-is hiems, winter. *ass-is as, a copper. -ns -nd-is frons, leafy branch. -at-is aetas. age. -nt-is frons, forehead. -as*-ad-is vas, surety. -rs -rd-is coucors,concordant. *-at-is anas. duck. -rt-is pars, part. -aes*-aed-is praes, surety. -bs -b-is urbs, city. *aer-is aes, brass. -ps -p-is stirps, stalk. -aus -aud-is fraus, cheatery. -eps -ip-is princeps,chief. -es -is nubes, cloud. *-up-is auceps, fowler. -ed-is pes, foot. -ax -ac-is pax, peace. *-er-is Ceres, Ceres. -ax *-ac-is fax, torch. -et-is abies, fir. -aex -aec-is faex, dregs. -et-is quies, rest. -aux -auc-is [faux,] throat. -es -et-is seges, crop. -ex -ec-is nex, death. -id-is obses, hostage. -ic-is iudex, judge. -it-is miles, soldier. -eg-is grex, flock. -is -is amnis, river. *-ig-is remex, rower. -id-is lapis, stone. -ex *-ec-is allex, pickle. -in-is sanguis,blood. *-ic-is vibex(ix),weal -er-is cinis, ashes. -eg-is rex, king. -is *-it-is lis, suit at law. -ix -ic-is cervix, neck. *-ir-is glis, dormouse. -ix -ic-is calix, cup. -os *-od-is custos, keeper. *-ig-is strix, screech-owl. or-is flos, flower. *-iv-is nix, snow. -ot-is cos, whetstone. -ox -oc-is vox, voice. *-ov-is bos, ox. -ox *-oc-is praecox,early-ripe. -os *oss-is os, bone. *-og-is Allobrox,Allobrogian. -us *-ud-is pecus, cattle,sheep. *-oct-is nox, night. *-ur-is Ligus, a Ligurian. -ux -c-is crux, cross. -or-is. corpus, body. -ug-is coniux, spouse. -er-is scelus, crime. -ux -uc-is lux, light. -us -u-is sus, swine* -ug-is [frux,] fruit. -ud-is incus, anvil. -ix -ic-is falx, sickle. -ur-is ius, right. -nx -nc-is lanx, dish. -ut-is salus, weal. -rx -rc-is arx, citadel. C.NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE. -ac *-act-is lac,milk. -ut *-it-is caput,head. -ec *-ec-is allec,pickle(68,12). D.NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL. -e -i-s mare,sea. -o -on-is Saxo,Saxon. -o -on-is    pavo,peacock. -in-is homo,man. *-n-is caro,flesh. [30 FOURTH DECLENSION.] FOURTH DECLENSION. 61.The Fourth Declension embraces only dissyllabic and polysyllabic stems in u. The endings are those of the Third Declension. In the Genitive and Ablative Singular,and in the Nominative,Accusative,and Vocative Plural(sometimes,too,in the Dative Singular),the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of the ending,and becomes long.In the Dative and Ablative Plural it is weakened to i before the ending -bus. The Accusative Singular,as always in vowel stems,has the ending -m,without a connecting vowel(compare the Accusative in -i-m of the stems in i),hence -u-m. MASCULINE. NEUTER. SG.N.fructus,fruit. PL.fructus, SG.cornu,horn. PL.cornua, G.fructus, fructuum, cornus, cornuum, D.fructui(fructu), fructibus, cornu, cornibus, Ac.fructum, fructus, cornu, cornua, V.fructus, fructus, cornu, cornua, Ab.fructu. fructibus. cornu. cornibus. REMARKS.1.Dat.Abl. The original form -ubus is retained always in acus,needle arcus,bow quercus,oak tree tribus,tribe and in classical times in partus.birth But artus,limb genu,knee lacus,pool portus,harbor specus,cave tonitru,thunder veru,spit have both forms. 2.Domus,house,is declined : G.domu-os(archaic),domu-is and domi (early),domu-us(late),domus. D.domo(early),domui Ac.domum. V.domus. Ab.dom-u(sporadic),domo. Loc.domi. Pl.N.domus. G.domorum(LUCR.always,VERG.,FLOR.),domuum(late). D.Ab.domibus. Ac.domos,domus. Classical forms are those in black-faced type.A classical variant for domi(Loc.) is domui. NOTES.1.Singular: Genitive.In early inscriptions we find the ending -os,as senatuos;and in early authors not unfrequently -is,along with the contraction -us (uis),which becomes the regular form in classical times.In inscriptions under the empire -us is occasionally found,as exercituus.The termination -i,after the analogy of the Second Declension,is common in early Latin,and is still retained in some words even into the classical period;as senati(Cic.,SALL.,LIVY), tumulti(SALL.). 2.Dative.In the early time -uei is found very rarely for -ui.Also u,as senatu, fructu, which became the only form for neuters.In classical times -u in masc.and fem,is poetical only(CAESAR uses,however, casu, exercitu, magistratu, senatu, quaestu,profit ),but extends to prose in the Augustan age and later. 3.Plural : Nom.,Acc.,Voc.In imperial inscriptions -uus occurs. 4.Genitive.The poets frequently contract -uum into -um for metrical reasons,and this usage was sometimes extended to prose(not by CICERO) in common words;as passum for passuum. 5.Colus,distaff(糸巻棒),belongs properly to the Second Declension,but has variants : Q. COlus,Ab.colu,PL,N.,Ac.,colus,from the Fourth. [FIFTH DECLENSION.31] 62.Rule of Gender.Substantives in -us are masculine; those in -u are neuter. EXCEPTIONS.Feminines are acus,needle(usually), domus,house, Idus(pl.),the Ides, manus,hand, penus,victuals(also m.食料), porticus,piazza(広場), quinquatrus(pl.),festival of Minerva, tribus,tribe. Early and late Latin show some further variations. FIFTH DECLENSION.31 63.The stem ends in -e;Nominative in s. In the Genitive and Dative Singular -e has been shortened after a consonant. In the Accusative Singular we find always e. The ending in the Genitive Singular is that of the Second Declension,-i;the other endings are those of the Third. MASCULINE. FEMININE. SG.N.dies,day. PL.dies, SG.res,thing. PL.res, G.diei, dierum, rei, rerum, D.diei, diebus, rei, rebus, Ac.diem, dies, rem, res, V.dies, dies, res, res, Ab.die. diebus. re. rebus. REMARKS.1.Plural: Gen.,Dat.,All.Common in but two substantives,dies,res.Late Latin shows also speciebus,and very rarely spebus and aciebus. 2.Many words of the Fifth Declension have a parallel form,which follows the First Declension,as mollitigs,softness,and mollitia.Where this is the case,forms of the Fifth Declension are usually found only in the Nom.,Acc.,and Abl.Singular. NOTES.1.Singular : Genitive.The older ending -g-s is found sporadically in early Latin,but usually the ending -g-i,which became later -8-1 after consonants,though early poets show numerous examples of rgl,spgi,fidel.gl was occasionally scanned as one syllable,whence arose the contraction g,which is retained not unfrequently in the classical period;so acig(CAES.,SALL.),die(Pi-,CAES.,SALL.,LIVY,later),fidg(PL.,HOR.,Ov.,late Prose),and other less certain cases; Joccursvery rarely,principally in early Latin(but dil,VERG.,pernicil,Cic.).Plebes,in combination with tribunus,aedilis,scitum,often shows a Gen.plebl(plebei). 2.Dative.The contraction -g is found,but less often than in the Gen.; awe (SALL.);die,facig(early Latin);fidg(early Latin,CAES.,SAXL.,LIVY),pernicig (LIVY),and a few other forms.The Dat.in -i is found very rarely in early Latin. 64.Rule of Gender.-- Substantives of the Fifth Declension are feminine except dies(which in the Sing,is common,and in the Pl.masculine),and meridies(m.),midday. [32 DECLENSION OF GREEK SUBSTANTIVES.] Declension of Greek Substantives. 65.Greek substantives,especially proper names,are commonly Latinised,and declined regularly according to their stem-characteristic.Many substantives,however,either retain their Greek form exclusively,or have the Greek and Latin forms side by side.These variations occur principally in the Singular,in the Plural the declension is usually regular. Singular Forms of Greek Substantives. First Declension. N. Penelope, Leonidas, Anchises, G. Penelopes, Leonidae, Anchisae, D. Penelopae, Leonidae, Anchlsae, Ac. Penelopen, Leonidam,an, Anchisen,am, V. Penelope, Leonida, Anchlse,a,a, Ab. Penelopa. Leonida. Anchisa. Second Declension. N. Delos,us, Ilion,um, Panthus Androgeos,us, G. Deli, Ilii, Panthi, Androgei, D. Delo, Ilio, Pantho, Androgeo, Ac. Delon,um, Ilion,um, Panthun, Androgeon,o,ona V. Dele, Ilion,um, Panthu, Androgeos, Ab. Delo. Ilio. Paatho. Androgeo. Third Declension. N. Solon,Solo, aer,air. Xenophon, Atlas, G. Solonis, aeris, Xenophontis, Atlantis, D. Soloni, aeri, Xenophonti, Atlanti, Ac. Solona,em, aera,em, Xenophonta,em, Atlanta, V. Solon, aer, Xenophon, Atla, Ab. Solone. aere. Xenophonte. Atlante. N. Thales, Paris, heros,hero, G. Thal-etis,-is, Paridis,os, herois, D. Thal-eti,-i, Paridī,i, heroi, Ac. Thal-eta,-en,-em, Par-ida,-im,-in, heroa,em, V. Thale, Pari,Paris, heros, Ab. Thale. Paride. heroe. Mixed Declensions. ii.iii. ii.iii. ii.iii. N. Orpheus, Athos, Oedipus, G. Orphei,ei, Atho,onis, Oedip-odis,-i, D. Orpheo, Atho, Oedipodi, Ac.Orpheum,ea, Atho,on,onem, Oedip-um,-oda V. Orpheu, Athos, Oedipe, Ab.Orpheo. Athone. Oedip-ode,-o. [IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.33] ii. iii. ii. iii. iii. iv. N. Achilles,ens, Socrates, Dido, G. Achillis,ei,i,eos, Socratis,i, Didus,onis, D. Achilli, Socrati, Dido,oni, Ac. Achillem,ea,en, Socraten,em, Dido,onem, V. Achilles,e,eu,e, Socrate,es, Dido, Ab. Achille,e,i. Socrate. Dido,one. REMARKS.1.In the Gen.PL -en and -eon are found in the titles of books;as,Georgicon,Metamorphoseon. 2.Many Greek names,of the Third Declension in Latin,pass over into the First Declension in the Plural;as,Thucydidas,Hyperidae,and many names in -crates;as Socrates;Pl.,Socratae(also SOcrates). 3.In transferring Greek words into Latin,the Accusative Singular was sometimes taken as the stem : So κρατερ,Acc.κρατερα,(punch) bowl. crater,crateris(masc.),and cratera(creterra) craterae(fem.). Σαλαμισ,,Acc.Σαλαμινα,Salamis. Salamis,Salaminis,and Salamina,ae. 66.NOTES.1.Singular: Genitive.The Greek termination oeo(oio) appears rarely in early Latin,but u(ou) is more frequent,especially in geographical names,etc. The termination -os(ος) is rare except in feminine patronymics in -is,-as,(G.-idos,-ados). 2.Dative.The ending -i is very rare;and rarer still is the Dat.in -o from feminines in -o,and Dat.in -y from Nominatives in -ys. 3.Accusative.-a.is the most common termination in the Third Declension,and is found regularly in some words otherwise Latinised;as aera,aethera.Stems in -o usually have -o,very rarely -on. 4.Plural.In the Second Declension oe is found occasionally in the Nom.,in early Latin;as,adelphoe.The Third Declension shows frequently es in the Nom.and as in the Accusative;also occasionally e in the Nom.and Acc.of neuters,and -si(but only in the poets) in the Dative. 5.For other peculiarities,not observable in the paradigms,the dictionaries should be consulted.Sometimes the forms are merely transliterations of Greek cases. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 1.Redundant Substantives.(Abundantia.) 67.A.Heterogeneous Substantives,or those whose gender varies : 1.The variation occurs in several cases in either number or in both. abrotonum,-us,a plant(rare), clipeus,-um,shield, aevom(urn),-us,age, collum,-us,neck, baculum,-us,staff, costum,-us,a plant(rare), balteus,-um,girdle, forum,-us,market, buxus,-um,box-wood(rare), gladius,-um,sword, [calamister],-um,curling-iron(rare),  intibus,-um,succory(rare), caseus,-um,cheese, iugulum,-us,collar-bone, cavom(um),-us,cavity, nardum,-us,nard(rare), cingulum,-us,belt, nasus,-um,nose, [34 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.] palatum,-us,palate, thesaurus,-um,treasure, pileus,-um,cap, uterus,-um,womb, sagum,-us,cloak, vallus,-um,palisade, tergum,-us,back, and many others. 2.The gender varies in Singular and Plural. a.The Plural has -a sometimes,while the Singular ends in -us(or -er) : clivus,hill,iocus,jest,locus(loca,localities;loci,usually passages in books,topics),and many others,especially names of places. b.The Plural has -i,while the Singular ends in -um : filum,thread,frenum,bit,rastrum,hoe,and many others. 68.B.Heteroclites,or substantives which show different stems with the same Nominative;Metaplasts,or those which have certain forms from another than the Nominative stem. 1.1st,2d. esseda,-um,chariot, margarita,-um,pearl, ostrea,-um,oyster, 2.1st,5th. duritia,-es,hardness, materia,-es,matter, and many others.See 63,R.2. 3.2d,1st. mendum,-a,fault, sertum,-a,wreath. The following form their Plural according to the First Declension only : balneum,bath, delicium,pleasure, epulum,banquet, fulmentum,prop. 4.2d,3d. sequester,trustee, Mulciber,Vulcan. 5.2d,4th.Many names of trees of the Second Declension have certain cases according to the Fourth;never,however,the Gen.and Dat.Pl.,and very rarely the Dat.Sing.; as cornus,cupressus,fagus,ficus,laurus,myrtus,pinus,and a few others. Also angiportus,alley, colus,distaff, domus,house, and a large number of substantives of the Fourth Declension which have one or two cases of the Second;so arcus has G.arci; conatus(-um),iussus(-tun),vultus have Nom.Pl.in a; senatus has Gen.Sing,senati.See 61,RR,NN. Finally,some substantives of the Second Declension form individual cases according to the Fourth : fasti(Ac.pl.fastus),fretum(N.fretus,Ab.fretu),lectus(G.lectus),tributum(N.tributus),and others. 6.2d,5th. diluvium,-es,flood. 7.3d.2d. Vas,vessel,and vasum; palumbes,pigeon,and palumbus; [iuger],acre,and iugerum; all Greek nouns in -a(G.atis),as poema,poem(G.poematis),but PL Gen.poematorum,Dat.Abl.poematis. 8.3d,5th.Fames,hunger, tabes,corruption, have Abl.fame,tabe; requies,quiet(G.-etis) has Acc.requiem,Abl.requie; satias(G.atis) is early and late for satietas,sufficiency, and a form saties is cited from late authors; plebs(G.plebis),commons,and plebes(G.plebei). 9.4th,3d. Specus,cave, has occasionally forms of the Third Declension. 10.2d,3d,1st.Vesper,evening, has Acc.vesperum;Dat.Abl.vespero;Pl.Nom.vespera of the Second Declension;Acc.vesperam;Abl.vespera of the First; Gen.vesperis; Abl.vespere;Loc.vespere,vesperi of the Third. 11.4th,2d,3d. Penus,food,(G.us). Forms of the Second Declension are rare; of the Third early and late. 12.Variations in the same Declension : femur(G.femoris,feminis,etc.); iecur (G.iecoris.iecinoris,etc.); pecus,early,also pecu(G.peooris,pecudis,etc.). Also allec and allex,baccar and baccaris,cassis and cassida,lac and lacte (early),panis and pane(early),rete and retis,satias and satietas. [IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.35] II.Defective Substantives. I.SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN NUMBER. 69.A.Substantives used in Singular only:Singularia tantum. Most abstract substantives,and names of materials;such as iustitia,justice, aurum,gold. B.Substantives used in Plural only : Pluralia tantum. altaria,ium, altar(sing.late). insidiae,ambuscade. ambages, round about. lactes, intestines(腸). angustiae, straits. lamenta,lamentations. antae, door-posts. lautomiae,stone-quarries(石切り場). antes, rows(of vines), liberi, children. arma,orum, arms. manes, shades of the dead. armamenta,orum, tackle. manubiae, spoils. bellaria,orum, dessert. minae, threats. bigae,quadrigae, two-horse,four-horse moenia,ium, town-wall. chariot(sing.late), nundinae(-num), market. cancelli, lattice. nuptiae, wedding. casses, toils(snare). palpebrae,eyelids(sing.late). caulae, opening. parentalia,festival for dead cervices, neck(sing,early,late, relations. and poet.). parietinae, ruins. cibaria, victuals. penates,the Penates. claustrum, lock(sing.late). phalerae,trappings(馬飾り). clitellae, pack-saddle. praecordia,orum,diaphragm. codicilli, a short note. praestrigiae,jugglers'tricks. compedes, fetters. preces,-um, prayer. crepundia,orum, rattle. primitiae,first-fruits. cunae, cradle. quisquiliae, rubbish. divitiae, riches. reliquiae, remains. dumeta,orum, thorn-bush. renes, kidneys. epulae(epulum), banquet. salinae, salt-pits. excubiae, watching. scalae, stairway. exsequiae, funeral procession, sentos, brambles(野ばら). exta,orum, the internal organs, spolia,orum,spoils(sing,late,and exuviae, equipments. poet.). facetiae, witticism(sing,ear- sponsalia,ium, betrothal. ly and late). suppetiae, succor(early and late) fasti(fastus), calendar. talaria,ium, winged sandals. fauces, gullet. tenebrae, darkness. feriae, holidays. thermae, warm baths. flabra, breezes. tonsillae, tonsils. fores, door(sing,early, tormina, colic. late and poet.). tricae, tricks. fraga,orum, strawberries. utensilia,ium, necessaries. grates, thanks. valvae, folding-doors. hiberna, winter quarters. verbera,um,scourging(sing.poet and late). Idus,Kalendae, Ides,Calends, Nonae, Nones. vindiciae,a legal claim. incunabula, swaddling-clothes, virgulta,orum, shrubbery. indutiae, truce. viscera,entrails(sing,poet inferiae, sacrifices for the dead. andlate). [36 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES.] NOTES.1.Four of these have the Abl.Sing,in -e: ambage,compede,fauce,prece. 2.Names of persons or towns,and collectives and the like,may be either singularia tantum,as Iuppiter; Roma; capillus,hair; or pluralia tantum,as maiores,ancestors; Quirites; liberi,children; pulmones,lungs. Many of these are not included in the above list,which is meant to contain only the principal forms. Akin to pluralia tantum are : C.Substantives used in Plural with a special sense : Heterologa. aedes,is,temple(better aedis), aedes, house,palace. aqua, water, aquae, mineral springs. auxilium,help, auxilia,auxiliaries,reinforcements. carcer, prison, carceres,barriers. castrum,fort, castra,camp. cera, wax, cerae,waxen tablets. comitium,place of assemblage, comitia,assemblage for voting. copia, abundance, copiae,forces,troops. delicium,pleasure, deliciae,pet. facultas,capability. facultates,goods. finis, end,limit, fines,territory,borders. fortuna,fortune, fortunae,possessions. habena, strap, habenae,reins. impedimentum,hindrance, impedimenta,baggage. littera,letter(of the alphabet), litterae,epistle,literature. ludus, game,school, ludi,public games. opera, work, operae,workmen. pars, part, partes,also role. rostrum,beak, rostra,the tribunal at Rome. sors, lot, sortes,also oracle. tabula, board,tablet, tabulae,also accounts. vigilia,a night-watch, vigiliae,pickets. 2.SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN CASE. 70.A.Substantives occurring in only one case : Gen.dicis,form , Acc.Infitias (ire),(to) lie; pessum(ire),(to) perish; Abl.pondo,in weight; sponte,of free will; tabo,corruption(Gen.late);and many verbals in u,as accitu,admonitu,arcessitu,coactu,compressu,concessu,domitu,inductu, interpositu,invitatu,iussu (other forms late),iniussu,mandatu,missu, natu,permissu,promptu,rogatu. A few others occur occasionally in ante-classical and post-classical Latin. B.Substantives with only two cases : fas,nefas,Sing.N.Ac.; Instar,Sing.N.Ac.; internecio,Sing.Ac.Ab.; naucum,Sing.G.Ac.; secus,Sing.N.Ac.; spinter,Sing. N.Ac.; suppetiae,Plur.N.Ac.,and a few others. Some verbals in -us have in Plural only Nom.and Acc.,as impetus,monitus. Greek neuters in -os have only Nom.and Acc.Singular. C.Substantives with three cases : faex,Sing.N.,D.,Plur.Ab.; virus,slime;Sing. N.,G.,Ab. D.Defective substantives with more than three cases are numerous,but in the classical period the most important are: calx(lime),cos,[daps],dica,[dicio],flamen(blast), forum,[frux],[indago],later,lux,[ops],os(mouth), pax,remex,vis(power),[vix], and most substantives of the Fifth Declension.The Nominatives in brackets do not occur,but only oblique cases. E. Nemo,nobody,substitutes for Gen.and Abl. nullius hominis,and nullo homine. In the Dat.and Acc.it is normal; nemini,neminem. [ADJECTIVES.37] 71. III.Peculiarities. as,assis(m.), a copper. iter,itineris(n.), way,route. auceps,aucupis, fowler. iecur,iecoris(n.), liver. bos(for bovs),bovis(c.),ox,cow. iecinoris,iecineris,iocineris. G.Pl.boum. Iuppiter, Iovis. D.Ab.bubus,bobus. mel,mellis(n.), honey. caput,capitis(n.),head. nix,nivis(f .), snow. anceps,ancipitis,two-headed. os,ossis(n.), bone(48 R.). praeceps,-cipitis,headlong. os,oris(n.), mouth. caro,carnis(f.),flesh. pollis,pollinis(m.), flour. PL G.carnium. sanguis,sanguinis(m.), Wood. Ceres,Cereris, Ceres. senex,senis, old man. far,farris(n.) spelt. supellex,supellectilis(f.),furniture. fel,fellis(n.), gall(胆汁). Venus,Veneris, Venus. femur,femoris(n.),thigh. feminis. ADJECTIVES. 72.The adjective adds a quality to the substantive.Adjectives have the same declension as substantives,and according to the stem-characteristic are of the First and Second,or Third Declension. Adjectives of the First and Second Declension. 73.Stems in -o for masculine and neuter,-a for feminine; nominative in -us,-a,-um;(er),-a,-um.The same variations in termination occur as in the substantives;except that adjectives in -ius form Singular Genitive and Vocative regularly.See 33,R.1 and 2. Bonus,bona,bonum,good. M. F. N. M. F. N. SG.N. bonus, bona, bonum. PL. boni, bonae, bona. G. boni, bonae, boni. bonorum,bonarum,bonorum. D. bono, bonae, bono. bonis, bonis, bonis. Ac. bonum, bonam, bonum. bonos, bonas, bona. V. bone, bona, bonum. boni, bonae, bona. Ab. bono, bona, bono. bonis, bonis, bonis. Miser,misera,miserum,wretched. SG.N. miser, misera, miserum. PL. miseri, miserae,misera. G. miseri, miserae,miseri. miserorum,miserarum,miserorum, D. misero, miserae,misero. miseris,miseris,miseris. Ac. miserum, miseram,miserum. miseros,miseras,misera. V. miser, misera, miserum. miseri, miserae,misera. Ab. misero, misera, misero. miseris,miseris,miseris. [38 ADJECTIVES.] Piger,pigra,pigrum,slow. SG.N. piger, pigra, pigrum. PL. pigri, pigrae, pigra. G. pigri, pigrae, pigri. pigrorum,pigrarum,pigrorum. D. pigro, pigrae, pigro, pigris, pigris, pigris. Ac. pigrum, pigram, pigrum. pigros, pigras, pigra. V. piger, pigra, pigrum. pigri, pigrae, pigra. Ab. pigro, pigra, pigro. pigris, pigris, pigris. REMARK.For irregularities in the declension of ambo,both, duo,two, see 95;for meus,my, see 100,R.1. 74.Stems in -ro follow the same principle in the formation of the Nominative masculine as the substantives,except that -us is retained in ferus,wild, properus,quick, praeproperus,praeposterus,absurd, inferus,lower(infer is early), superus,upper(super is early), and a few others in late Latin; also when -ro is preceded by a long vowel;as, austerus,harsh, maturus,early, procerus,tall, purus,pure, severus,serious, sincerus,sincere, serus,late, verus,true. REMARKS.1.Dextera,dexterum,etc.,right,are found side by side with dextra,dextrum,etc.,throughout the language(see 8,2).CAESAR uses only the shorter form. 2.A few adjectives of this class lack the Nom.Sing,wholly or in part;so there is no ceterus or posterus in the classical period. 75.NOTES ON THE CASES. 1.The Gen.Sing,in -i from adjectives in -ius occurs occasionally in inscriptions and in late authors.The Gen.Sing.fem,in early Latin had sometimes ai,and in inscriptions occasionally -aes and -as. 2.The Dat.Sing.fem,in early Latin occasionally ended in -ai,and in the oldest inscriptions in -a. 3.In early inscriptions the -d of the Abl.is occasionally retained. 4.Very rarely in early inscriptions does the Nom.PL masc.end in -eis,and in one case the Nom.Pl.fem of a perfect participle ends in -ai. 5.In poetry,but at all periods,we find -um alongside of -orum and -arum in the Gen.Plural. 6.In the Dat.and Abl.PL -iis from adjectives in -ius is often contracted to is; usually in names of months and in adjectives formed from proper names.In early inscriptions -abus is found occasionally for -is in the Dat.and Abl.PL feminine. 76.The so-called pronominal adjectives alter,one of the two; alteruter(a combination of alter and uter),either of the two; alius,other; neuter,neither; nullus,none; solus, sole; totus,whole; ullus,any; unus,one; uter,which of the two, and their compounds,show the following variations in declension [ADJECTIVES.39] 1.They usually make the Gen.Sing,in -ius for all genders.(alterius,alterutrius, alius,neutrius,nullius,solius,totius,ullius,unius,utrius) REMARKS.1.The Gen.alius is very rare,and as a possessive its place is usually taken by alienus. 2.The i of the ending -ius(except in alius) could be shortened in poetry.This was usually the case with alter, and regularly in the compounds of uter;as,utriusque. NOTE.The regular forms are early and rare;in classical prose only nulli(Cic. Rosc.Cam.16,48) and occasionally aliae. 2.They usually make the Dat.Sing,in -i. (alteri,alterutri,alii,neutri,nulli,soli, toti,ulli,uni,utri) NOTE.Regular forms are sometimes found,but in classical prose only alterae, nullo, toto, and perhaps totae. alī is found in early Latin for alii. 3.In the compound alteruter we find usually both parts declined; sometimes the second only. 4.Alius makes Nom.and Acc.Sing,neuter irregularly : aliud. NOTE.Alis and alid,for alius and aliud,are early and rare;the latter,however, occurs several times in LUCR,and once in CATULLUS. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 77.The declension of the adjectives of the Third Declension follows the rules given for the substantives. Most adjectives of the Third Declension are vowel stems in -i,with two(rarely three) endings in the Nominative. The remaining adjectives of the Third Declension are consonant stems and have one ending only in the Nominative. ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS. 78.1.These have(except stems in -ri) one ending in the Nominative for masculine and feminine,one for neuter. Most stems in -i form the masculine and feminine alike, with Nominative in s;but the Nominative neuter weakens the characteristic i into e.(Compare mare,sea.) 2.Several stems in -i,preceded by r(cr,tr,br),form the Nominative masculine,not by affixing s,but by dropping the i and inserting short e before the r,as,stem acri,sharp, Nom.,acer(m.),acris(f.),acre(n.). These adjectives are acer, alacer, campester, celeber, celer, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and the last four months;and are sometimes called adjectives of three endings. The e belongs to the stem in celer,celeris,celere,swift, and therefore appears in all cases. [40 ADJECTIVES.] M.and F. N. M. F. N. SG.N. facilis, facile, easy. acer,sharp, acris, acre, G. facilis, facilis, acris, acris, acris, D. facili, facili, acri, acri, acri, Ac. facilem, facile, acrem, acrem, acre, V. facilis, facile, acer, acris, acre, Ab. facili. facili. acri. acri. acri. PL.N. faciles, facilia, acres, acres, acria, G. facilium, facilium, acrium, acrium, acrium, D. facilibus, facilibus, acribus, acribus, acribus, Ac. faciles(is), facilia, acres(is), acres(is), acria, V. faciles, facilia, acres, acres, acria, Ab. facilibus. facilibus. acribus. acribus. acribus. REMARK.Stems in -ali and -ari differ from the substantival declension in not suffering apocope in the Nom.Sing,neuter,except occasionally capital.See 56. 79.REMARKS.1.Many adjectives of two endings(except stems in -ri) have also -e in the Ablative.This is found chiefly in the poets,very rarely,if ever,in classical prose,occasionally in early and preAugustan prose,and more often in inscriptions.When,however,these adjectives become proper names,-e is the rule.See 57,R.2,N. 2.The Gen.PL in -um is found occasionally in inscriptions,frequently in the poets.In classical prose are found only Titiensum and familiarum. NOTES.1.The Nom.Pl.has in early Latin not unfrequently -is. 2.In the Acc.PL,masc.and fem.,of adjectives,the ending -is(eis) is found alongside of -es in every period of the language,though in decreasing proportion,and after the Augustan period principally in omnis. ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING. 80.Adjective stems of one ending(consonant stems) close with l,r,s,a p mute,a k mute,or a t mute. Examples are : vigil,alert,memor,mindful, pauper,poor,cicur,tame, pubes,adult,vetus,old, vigilis. memoris. pauperis. cicuris. puberis, veteris. particeps,sharing, caelebs,unmarried, inops,poor, participis. caelibis. inopis. audax,bold, felix,lucky, duplex,double, ferox,fierce, trux,savage, audacis. felicis. duplicis. ferocis. trucis. dives,rich, deses,slothful, compos,possesed of, prudens,wise, concors,harmonious, divitis. desidis.怠惰な compotis. prudentis. concordis. [ADJECTIVES.41] Present active participles are also consonant stems and follow the same declension. 81.The stem varieties are : 1.Liquid stems in (a) -l: vigil(G.vigilis),alert, pervigil; (b) -r: par(G. paris),equal, impar(these two lengthen the vowel in the Nom.), compar ,and three others; pauper(G.pauperis),poor, uber; memor(G.memoris),mindful, immemor; concolor(G.-oris), and three other compounds of color; degener(G.-eris),from genus(G.generis). 2.Sibilant stems in (a) -s : exos(G.exossis),boneless(LUCR.); (b) -r : gnarus (G.gnaruris;PLAUT.),経験のある Ligus, vetus; pubes(G.puberis), impubes.若い 3.Mute stems in (a) a K-mute : audax(G.audacis),bold,and four others; felix (G.felicis), pernix, atrox(G.atrocis), ferox, velox; exlex(G.-legis); trux (G.trucis), redux; the multiplicatives in -plex(G.-plicis),as simplex,etc. (b) A P-mute : inops(G.inopis); caelebs(G.caelibis); compounds of -ceps(G.-cipis, from capere),as particeps, and of -ceps(G.-cipitis,from caput),as anceps, praeceps(PLAUT.sometimes uses,in the Nom.,ancipes,praecipes,etc.). (c) A T-mute : hebes(G.hebetis) and three others; locuples(G.-pletis) and three others; dives (G.divitis),for which in poetry dis(G.ditis), sospes; compos(G.compotis), impos; superstes(G.-stitis), ales; exheres(G.edis); deses(G.desidis), reses; compounds from substantives : consors(G.-sortis), exsors; concors, discors, misericors, socors, vecors; expers(G.-ertis), iners, sollers; amens(G. ament-is), demens; intercus(G.cut-is); pernox(G.-noct-is); topes(G.-ped-is), quadrupes, alipes; adjectives and participles in -ans,-ens(G.-ant-is,-ent-is) and proper names in -as(G.at-is),-is(G.-it-is),-ns(G.-nt-is),-rs(G.-rt-is), Arpinas, Samnis, Veiens, Camers. 82.The consonant stems have the same forms in all the genders,except that in the Accusative Singular,and in the Nominative,Accusative,and Vocative Plural,the neuter is distinguished from the masculine and feminine. In the oblique cases they follow in part the declension of vowel stems;thus, 1.In the Ablative Singular they have I and e when used as adjectives commonly I;when used as substantives commonly e. The participles,as such,have e;but used as substantives or adjectives,either e or i,with tendency to ī. 2.In the neuter Plural they have ia;except vetus,old, which has vetera.Many have no neuter. 3.In the Genitive Plural they have : ium,when the stem-characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a consonant; um,when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel. The participles have ium. [42 ADJECTIVES.] M.and P. N. M.and F. N. M.and F. N. SG N. felix,lucky,felix, prudens,wise,prudens, vetus,old, vetus, G. felicis, felicis, prudentis, prudentis, veteris, veteris, D. felici, felici, prudenti, prudenti, veteri, veteri, Ac.felicem, felix, prudentem, prudens, veterem, vetus, V. felix, felix, prudens, prudens, vetus, vetus, Ab.felici(e) felici(e) prudenti(e) prudenti(e) vetere(i) vetere(i) PL.N. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera, G. felicium, felicium, prudentium, prudentium, veterum, veterum, D. felicibus, felicibus, prudentibus, prudentibus, veteribus, veteribus, Ac. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera, V. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera, Ab. felicibus, felicibus. prudentibus, prudentibus. veteribus, veteribus. M.and F . N. M.and F. N. SG.N. amans,loving, amans, PL.amantes, amantia, G. amantis, amantis, amantium, amantium, D. amanti, amanti, amantibus, amantibus, Ac. amantem, amans, amantes(is), amantia, V. amans, amans, amantes, amantia, Ab. amante(i). amante(i). amantibus. amantibus. 83.REMARK.In early and late Latin,and at all periods in the poets,-e is often found for -i in the Abl.Singular.In classical prose we find regularly compote, deside, impubere, participe, paupere, pubere, superstite, vetere, and frequently divite(but always diti), quadrupede, sapiente. With participles,-i is usual when they are used as adjectives, but classical prose shows -e also in antecedens, candens, consentiens, despicicns, effluens, hians, imminens, influens, profluens, consequens(but sequens not before LIVY), titubans, vertens. NOTES.1.In the Nom.and Acc.PL -is for es belongs to early Latin and the poets, but a few cases of the Acc.are still found in CICERO.In the case of participles -is is very common,and is the rule in VERGIL and HORACE.In the neuter,-a for -ia is found only in ubera,vetera;ditia is always used for the unsyncopated form divitia. 2.Compound adjectives,whose primitives(基本形) had -um in Gen.PL,have usually -um instead of -ium; quadrupes,quadrupedum, and other compounds of pes; inops,inopum; supplex,supplicum. Also, cicur,cicurum; vetus,veterum; dives, divitum; locuples,locupletum(rare,usually -ium). In the poets and in later writers,-um is not unfrequently found where classical prose uses -ium. Irregular Adjectives. 84.A.ABUNDANTIA. 1.Some adjectives which end in -us,-a,-um,in the classical times, show occasionally in early Latin,in the poets,and in later Latin,forms in -is,-e, e.g. imbecillus and imbecillis; Infrenus and Infrenis; biiugus and biiugis; violentus and violens; indecorus and indecoris;so also perpetuus and perpes. In a number of other adjectives the variant forms are very rare or disputed. [ADJECTIVES.43] 2.Many adjectives which end in -is,-e,in the classical times,show parallel forms in -us,-a,-um,in early Latin,and more rarely in late Latin.Adjectives in -us,-a,-um,in early Latin,seem to have had a tendency to go over into forms in -is,-e.Thus, hilarus is the regular form in early Latin;in CICERO it is used side by side with hilaris, and later hilaris is universal.Other examples in the classical period are inermis and inermus; imberbis and imberbus; alaris and alarius; auxiliaris and auxiliarius; intercalaris and intercalarius; talaris and talarius. 85.B.DEFECTIVE. 1.Several adjectives lack a Nom.Singular,wholly or in part : as, cetera(f.),ceterum, perperum(n.), nuperum(n.), primoris(G.), bimaris (G.), bimatris(G.), tricorporis(G.),and a few others. 2.Some adjectives are defective in other cases : thus, exspes and perdius,-a are found only in the Nom.; exlex only in the Nom.and Acc.(exlegem); pernox only in Nom.,Abl.(pernocte),and Nom.Pl.(pernoctes, rare); centimanus has only the Acc.Sing.(Hor.,Ov.);also unimanus (Liv.), and a few others. C.INDECLINABLES. Nequam; potis,and pote(early); frugi; macte(mactus,-um,very rare); necesse,necessum,and necessus(early and poetical); volup and volupe(early);and the judicial damnas. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 86.The Degrees of Comparison are : Positive,Comparative,and Superlative. The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -ior for the masculine and feminine,and -ius for the neuter. The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -issimus,-a,-um(earlier -issumus). Vowel stems,before forming the Comparative and Superlative,drop their characteristic vowel. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. M.and F. N. altus,a,um,high, altior,higher, altius, altissimus,a,um,highest. fortis,e, brave, fortior, fortius, fortissimus. utilis,e, useful, utilior, utilius, utilissimus. audax, bold, audacior, audacius, audacissimus. prudens, wise, prudentior, prudentius, prudentissimus. NOTE.In early Latin we find very rarely -ios for ior;also -ior used for the neuter ae well. [44 ADJECTIVES.] Peculiarities. 87.1.Adjectives in -er add the Superlative ending(-rumus) -rimus (for -simus by assimilation;see 9,i) directly to the Nominative masculine.The Comparative follows the rule. POSITIVE. COMPABATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. miser,a,um, wretched, miserior,miserius, miserrimus. celer,is,e, swift, celerior,celerius, celerrimua. acer,acris,acre,sharp, acrior, acrius, acerrimus. REMARKS.1.Dexter,right,and sinister,left,have always dexterior and sinisterior in the Comparative.Deterior,worse,deterrimus,lacks a Positive. 2. Vetus,old,has Comp.veterior(archaic) or vetustior;Sup., veterrimus. Maturus,ripe,has occasionally Sup.maturrimus in addition to the normal maturissimus. NOTE.In early Latin and in Inscriptions this rule is occasionally violated.Thus celerissimus in ENNIUS;integrissimus,miserissimus,in inscriptions. 2.Some Comparatives in -erior,whose Positive is lacking or rare,form the Superlative either in -remus by metathesis(音位転換);or in -imus or -umus;or in both.These are: citerior,on this side,citimus(rare); exterior,outer,extremus,extimus(latter not in Cic.); dexterior(87, i,R.i;once in Cic.),dextimus(rare;not in Cic.); inferior,lower,infimus,imus; interior,inner,intimus; posterior,hinder,postremus,postumus; superior,upper,supremus,summus. 3.Six adjectives in -ilis add -limus to the stem,after dropping -i,to form the Superlative;perhaps by assimilation : facilis,easy; difficilis, hard; similis,like; dissimilis,unlike; gracilis,slender,and humilis,low. facilis,Comp.facilior,Sup.facillimus. 4.Adjectives in -dicus,-ficus,-volus,borrow the Comparative and Superlative from the participial forms in -dicens,-ficens,and -volens. benevolus,benevolent,Comp.benevolentior,Sup.benevolentissimus. maledicus,scurrilous.maledicentior,maledicentissimus. magnificus,distinguished.magnificentior,magnificentissimus. NOTE.Benevolens,malevolens,maledicens,still occur in early Latin. 5.In like manner egenus and providus form their Comparative and Superlative. egenus,needy,egentior,egentissimus. providus,far-sighted,providentior,providentissimus. [ADJECTIVES.45] 6.Adjectives in -us(os),preceded by a vowel(except those in -quos), form the Comparative and Superlative by means of magis and maxime, more and most. idoneus,fit, Comp.magis idoneus, Sup.maxime idoneus. But antiquos,old, Comp.antiquior, Sup.antiquissimus. REMARK.--But pius,pious, which lacks the Comparative,forms the Superlative regularly, piissimus(in inscriptions also pientissimus);likewise in late Latin, impius. NOTES.--1.A few words,chiefly in early Latin,show the normal comparison.In Cic.only,assiduissime(adv.) and alsius. 2.Comparison by means of plus and plurimum is late. 7.Some Comparatives and Superlatives are in use,whilst the corresponding Positive is either lacking or rare. So deterior(87,1.R,1); ocior,swift,ocissimus; potior,better,potissimus; exterior,outer(87,2),from exterus,on the outside,and prep,extra,without; superior,upper(87,2),from superus,on the top,and prep,supra,above; inferior, lower(87,2),from inferus,below,and prep,infra,below; posterior,hinder(87,2), from posterus,coming after,and prep,post,after; citerior,on this side(87,2), from citer,and prep,citra,on this side. 8.The Positive stem of existing Comparatives is sometimes met with only in a preposition or an adverb;as, ante,before;anterior,that is before; prope,near;propior,proximus; ulterior,further,ultimus,from ultra,beyond; interior,inner,intimus,from intra,within; prior,former, primus,first,from pro,before; sequior(late),worse,from secus. 9.Many adjectives lack one or both of the degrees of comparison; especially those denoting material,relationship,time,etc. Novus,new, falsus,untrue, meritus,deserved, have no Comparative. Longinquos,afar, propinquos,near, salutaris,healthful, iuvenis,young(Comparative iunior),and senex,old(Comparative senior), have no Superlative."Youngest" and "oldest" are expressed by minimus,maximus(natu). NOTE.The Plautine and late medioximus,middlemost,lacks Positive and Comparative. 10.Dives,rich,shows in Cic.only divitior and divitissimus; otherwise the Comparative and Superlative are found principally in poetry and later prose,the more usual forms being the syncopated ditior,ditissimus. 88.Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the same laws of comparison : as, amans,loving, amantior, amantissimus; apertus,open, apertior, apertissimus. [46 ADJECTIVES.] 89.The Superlative follows the declension of adjectives of Three Endings of the First and Second Declensions.The Comparative is declined according to the Third Declension, thus :  M.and F. N. M.and F. N. SG.N.altior, altius. PL. altiores, altiora. G.altioris, altioris. altiorum, altiorum. D.altiori, altiori. altioribus, altioribus. Ac.altiorem, altius. altiores, altiora. V.altior, altius. altiores, altiora. Ab.altiore and -i, altiore and -i. altioribus, altioribus. REMARKS.1.In classical prose the Abl.Sing,ends n -e.In the poets and in early and late prose often in -i. 2.Extremely rare is the ending -is for -es in the Nom.Plural. In the Acc.Pl.this ending -is(-eis) is more common but still not frequent,and confined mainly to pluris,minoris,maioris,melioris. The neuter in -ia is found rarely in compluria,and perhaps once in pluria. 3.The Gen.PL in -ium is found in plurium and complurium only. 90.Irregular Comparison. bonus, good, melior, melius, optimus. malus, bad, peior, peius, pessimus. magnus, great, maior, maius, maximus. parvus, small, minor, minus, minimus, multus, much, S.--- plus(no Dat.nor Abl.), plurimus. Pl.plures, plura. complures,complura and -ia. nequam,worthless,nequior,nequius, nequissimus. frugi(indecl.), frugal, frugalior, frugalissimus. ADVERBS. 91.Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated forms of oblique cases of nominal or pronominal stems. The cases from which they are derived are principally the Accusative and the Ablative. 1.(a) From the Accusative are Substantival Adverbs in -tim.This was a favorite formation,and is used very often in all periods.In the classical times the adverbs of this form are : Acervatim,articulatim,centuriatim,certatim,generatim,gradatim, gregatim,membratim,paulatim,privatim,separatim,singulatim,statim, summatim,viritim,tributim,strictim,pedetemptim,raptim,furtim,partim, praesertim,confestim,and a few others;disguised forms of -tim are : caesim,incisim,sensim,cursim,passim,vicissim,for caed-tim(9,i-3),etc.; also interim. [ADVEERB.47] (b) A few very common adverbs are,perhaps,from Accusative Singular feminine of adjectives and pronominal stems.Chiefly clam, secretly, coram, in one's presence, palam, openly, perperam, wrongly, tam, so, quam, as, aliquam, some, iam, already; and forms in -fariam,as bifariam,multifariam,etc. (c) The Accusative Singular neuter of many adjectival and pronominal stems is used as an adverb.This is true of all Comparatives. Multum,much; paulum,a little; nimium,too much; ceterum,for the rest; primum,first; postremum,finally; potissimum,chiefly; facile, easily; dulce,sweetly; triste,sadly; impune,scot-free(罪を免れて); aliquantum, somewhat, and others. To the Comparatives belong magis,more; nimis,too; satis,enough. (d) The Accusative Plural feminine is found in alias,at other times, perhaps in foras,out-of-doors. The Accusative Plural neuter is found in alia,cetera,omnia, and occasionally in reliqua and a few others. 2.(a) From the Ablative are some substantival adverbs;the principal ones in classical Latin being domo,at home; impendio,greatly; initio,at the outset; modo,only; oppido,very; principio,in the beginning; privato,privately; vulgo,commonly; forte,by chance; magnopere, greatly,and other compounds of -opere; gratiis,for nothing, and ingratiis,and a few others. (b) Ablatives are also adverbs in e from adjectives in -us and -er : altus,lofty,alte; pulcher,beautiful,pulchre; miser,wretched,misere. Also fere and ferme(Sup.),almost. (c) The Ablative of some adjectives and pronouns serves as an adverb : tuto,safely; falso,falsely; perpetuo,ceaselessly; continuo,forthwith; improviso,unexpectedly; primo,at first; hoc,here; isto,there,etc. (d) In a few cases the adverbial form is the Abl.Sing,feminine : alia,otherwise; aliqua,somehow; dextera and dextra,to the right; sinistra and laeva,to the left hand; qua,on which side; recta, straightway, and some others. (e) A large number of these adjectives show adverbs in two endings,sometimes with a difference in meaning : consulte and consulto,purposely; certe,at least,and certo,certainly (certe scio,I certainly know;certo scio,I know for certain); rare,thinly, and raro,seldom; vere,in truth,and vero,true but; recto,correctly,and recta,straightway; dextera or dextra,to the right;and dextero,skilfully. (I) Ablatives are also qui,how(archaic),nequiquam,to no purpose; alioqui,otherwise; perhaps also diu,by day,and its compounds. [48 ADVERBS.] 3.Locative in origin are the following,in addition to those mentioned under 37,5 : die(in combination with numeral adjectives in early Latin,as die septimi) and its compounds cottidie,daily, hodie,today, pridie,the day before, postridie,the day after; quotannis,yearly; foris,outside. Also many forms from the pronominal stems,as hic,illic,istic(isti belongs to early Latin and VERG.); sic,so, ut(uti,utei),as; ibi,there, and its compounds alibi, ibidem; ubi(cubi),where,and its compounds. 4.A number of adverbs cannot be referred to.a definite case,as : adverbs of separation: hinc,hence, illinc(illim),istinc(istim),thence; temporal adverbs : tunc,then, cum,when, quondam,once, quando,when ? and its compounds; also, ante,before; post(poste),after; paene,almost; prope,propter,near; saepe,often; circiter,around; praeter,past; ergo, therefore; cras,tomorrow; haud(hau,haut),not; item,likewise; susque deque,up and down; vix,scarcely. 92.1 Adjectives and participles of the Third Declension form their adverbs by adding -ter(-iter) to the stem;stems in -nt dropping the t, and stems in a k-mute inserting the connecting vowel i before the ending;also a few adjectives of the Second Declension : fortis,brave,fortiter; ferox,wild,ferociter; prudens,foreseeing,prudenter. Exceptions : audax,bold,audacter(seldom audaciter); difficilis,hard to do,difficulter,difficiliter (but generally,non facile,vix,aegre),and others. 2.A large number of adjectives of the Second Declension in -us,-a,-um,and -er,-era,-erum,form in early and late Latin their adverbs by dropping the stem vowel and adding -iter(those in -tus added -er only).Many of these occur in classical writers alongside of the normal form in -e : humaniter and humane,humanely; largiter and large, lavishly; turbulenter and turbulente,riotously. 3.Some adverbs of origin are formed from substantival or adjectival stems by the ending -tus.In classical Latin mainly antiquitus,from early time; divinitus,from the gods; funditus,from the foundation; penitus,from the depths; radicitus,from the,roots; also intus,from within. 4.The termination -versus,-vorsum,is used to show direction whither; but in classical Latin it is found principally in the adverbs : introrsus (introvorsus),inwards; prorsus(-um),onwards; rursus(-um,rusum), back; sursum(susum),up; vorsum,towards. 5.A very large number of adverbs are formed by adding various other terminations;as, -de : inde,thence, unde,whence; -dem : pridem,long ago, itidem,likewise,etc.; -do : quando,when,etc.; -dam : quondam,once; -dum : dudum,a while ago; vixdum,hardly yet,etc.; -per: nuper,lately, parumper,a little, semper,always,etc.; -quam: umquam,ever, numquam,never,etc.; -secus: extrinsecus, outside,etc.; -tenus: quatenus,how far ? etc. [NUMERALS.49] 6.Syntactical and miscellaneous : admodum,very(to a degree), denuo, anew, imprimis;super,above, and its compounds,desuper,insuper; extemplo,at once; usque,to, and its compounds; invicem,in turn; adeo, so ; antea,before; interea,meanwhile; postea,after; praeterea,besides; propterea,on that account, and a few others. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 93.The Comparative of the adverb is the Accusative neuter of the Comparative of the adjective.The Superlative ends in -is-sime,-er-rime,etc.,according to the Superlative of the adjective. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. alte,loftily, altius, altissime. pulchre,beautifully, pulchrius, pulcherrime. misere,poorly, miserius, miserrime. fortiter,bravely, fortius, fortissime. audacter,boldly. audacius, audacissime. tuto,safely, tutius, tutissime. facile,easily, facilius, facillime. bene,well. melius, optime. male,ill, peius, pessime. [parvus],small. minus,less, minime,least. [magnus],great, magis,more, maxime,most. multum,much, plus,more, plurimum. cito,quickly, citius, citissime. diu,long, diutius, diutissime. saepe,often, saepius, saepissime. nuper,recently, nuperrime. satis,enough, satius,better, NUMERALS. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 94.The Cardinal numerals answer the question quot, how many? and are the numbers used in counting.The Ordinal numerals are derived from these and answer the question quotus,which one in the series ? They are as follows : 1.CARDINAL,NUMBERS. 2.ORDINAL NUMBERS. 1 I unus,una,unum primus,-a,-um(prior) 2 II duo,duae,duo secundus(alter) 3 III tres,tria tertius 4 IV quattuor quartus 5 V quinque quintus 6 VI sex sertus 7 VII septem septimus [50 NUMERALS.] 1.CABDINAL NUMBERS. 2.ORDINAL NUMBERS. 8 VIII octo octavus 9 IX novem nonus 10 X decem decimus 11 XI unidecim undecimus 12 XII duodecim duodecimus 13 XIII tredecim tertius decimus 14 XIV quattuordecim quartus decimus 15 XV quindecim quintus decimus 16 XVI sedecim sextus decimus 17 XVII septendecim septimus decimus 18 XVIII duodeviginti duodevicesimus 19 XIX undeviginti undevicesimus 20 XX viginti vicesiimis 21 XXI viginti unus vicesimus primus 22 XXII viginti duo vicesimus secundus 23 XXIII viginti tres vicesimus tertius 24 XXIV viginti quattuor vicesimus quartus 25 XXV viginti quinque vicesimus quintus 26 XXVI viginti sex vicesimus seztus 27 XXVII viginti septem vicesimus septimus 28 XXVIII duodetrinta duodetricesimus 29 XXIX undetriginta undetricesimus 30 XXX triginta tricesimus 40 XL quadraginta quadragesimus 50 L quinquaginta quinquagesimus 60 LX sexaginta sexagesimus 70 LXX septuaginta septuagesimus 80 LXXX octoginta octogesimus 90 xc nonaginta nonagesimus 100 C centum centesimus 101 CI centum et unus centesimus primus 115 CXV centum et quindecim centesimus(et) quintus decimus 120 CXX centum et viginti centesimus vicesimus 121 CXXI centum viginti unus centesimus vicesimus primus 200 CC ducenti,-ae,-a ducentesimus 300 CCC trecenti trecentesimus 400 CCCC quadringenti quadringentesimus 500 D(I⊃) quingenti quingentesimus 600 DC sescenti sescentesimus 700 DCC septingenti septingentesimus 800 DCCC octingenti octingentesimus 900 DCCCC nongenti nongentesimus 1000 M(⊂I⊃) mille millesimus [NUMERALS.51] 1.CARDINAL NUMBERS. 2.ORDINAL NUMBERS. 1001 MI mille et unus millesimus primus 1101 MCI mille centum unus millesimus centesimus primus 1120 MCXX mille centum viginti millesimus centesimus vicesimus 1121 MCXXI mille centum vigintiunus millesimus centesimus vicesimus primus 1200 MCC mille ducenti millesimus ducentesimus 2000 MM duo milia(millia) bis millesimus bina milia 2222 duo milia ducenti vi- bis millesimus ducentesimus ginti duo vicesimus secundus 5000 I⊃⊃ quinque milia quinquies millesimus quina milia 10,000 ⊂⊂I⊃⊃ decem milia decies millesimus dena milia 21,000 unum et viginti milia semel et vicies millesimus 100,000 centum milia centies millesimus centena milia [milia 1,000,000 decies centena(centum) decies centies millesimus 95.The Cardinal numerals are indeclinable,except : unus,one, duo,two, tres,three, the hundreds beginning with ducenti,two hundred, and the plural milia,thousands, which forms milium and milibus. M and F. N. N.duo,two, duae, duo, tres,three, tria. G.duorum, duarum, duorum, trium, trium. D.duobus, duabus, duobus, tribus, tribus. A.duos,duo, duas, duo, tres,tris, tria. Ab.duobus, duabus, duobus, tribus, tribus. Like duo is declined ambo,-ae,-o,both. REMARKS.1.For the declension of unus see 76.It occurs also in plural forms in connection with pluralia tantum,as unis litteris(Cic. Att,v.9,2), or with another numeral in the sense only;in the latter sense also with substantives. 2.The Gen.of the hundreds, ducenti,etc,.,ends in -um and not -orum. This must be distinguished from the use of the neuter singular in -um as a collective,as argenti sescentum(Luc.),a six hundred of silver. 3.The Pl.milia,milium,milibus,are treated almost always as substantives,the adjectival form being the Singular. NOTES.1.The form oinos for unus is found in early Latin.A Voc.une is occasional (CAT.,37,17). 2.For duae late Latin shows occasionally duo,and in inscriptions dua,for neuter [52 NUMERALS.] duo,is sometimes found.The Gen. duum(old duom) for duorum is not unfrequent.In the Dat.and Abl., duo is found in inscriptions,and for ambobus occasionally ambis. In the Acc.Pl.masc., duo and ambo for duos and ambos are quite common in early Latin,and also in classical times,but the better forms are duos,ambos. 3.Quattor is found for quattuor occasionally in inscriptions,and in early poetry quattuor was sometimes scanned as a dissyllable. 4.In inscriptions the forms meilia and millia are also found. 5.In regard to spelling of the Ordinals we find in early Latin quinctus as well as quintus; septumus and decumus regularly,and often the endings -ensimus and -ensumus in Ordinals from vicesimus on. 96. 1.Compound Numerals. 1.From 10 to 20,as in the tables,or separately : decem et tr5a. 2.The numbers 18,19,28,29,etc.,are commonly expressed by subtraction;occasionally,as in English,but never in CICERO,and very rarely in other classical authors.duodecentum is not found,and undecentum but once(PLIN.MAI.). 3.From 20 to 100,the compound numerals stand in the same order as the English : twenty-one,viginti unus;or,one and twenty,unus et (atque) viginti;as,twenty-one years old : annos unum et viginti(viginti unum),unum et viginti annos natus.But compounds like septuaginta et tres are not uncommon,though avoided by good writers. 4.From 100 on,et may be inserted after the first numeral,if there be but two numbers;as,centum quattuor,or centum et quattuor.If the smaller number precedes,the et should be inserted;likewise in all cases where a word is inserted within the compound numeral,as ducenti anni et viginti.If there be three numerals,the et is regularly omitted;exceptions are very rare. 5.In compound ordinals alter is preferred to secundus. 6.Centena milia is often omitted after the numeral adverb decies = 1,000,000;especially in stating sums of money. 7.Fractions are expressed by pars(omitted or expressed) in combination with dimidia(1/2),tertia(1/3),quarta(1/4),etc.A Plural numerator is expressed by a Cardinal;as,duae quintae(2/3).The fraction is often broken up;as,pars dimidia et tertia(5/6=1/2+1/3).The even denominators could be divided;as,dimidia tertia(1/2 x 1/3 = 1/6).Instead of dimidia without pars,dimidium is used. 2.Numeral Signs. D is short for 10⊃,M for CI⊃.Adding ⊃ on the right of 1⊃ multiplies by 1⊃; 100 = 5000;1000 = 50,000.Putting C before as often as ⊃ stands after multiplies the right-hand number by 2;CI⊃ = 1000;CCI⊃⊃ = 10,000;CCCI⊃⊃⊃ = 100,000.A line above multiplies by 1000;V = 5000.A line above and at each side multiplies by 100,000: |XIIII| =1,400,000.These signs may be combined : thus,|XIII| XXX VII D or |XIII| XXXVII MD = 1,337,500.PLIN.,N.H.iv.,12,24.Other signs are ー ,ー (inscr.) for 50,S ∞,(inscr.) for 1000,and for 100,000(inscr.),and q for 500,000(inscr). [NUMERALS.53] 97. 3.Distributive Numerals. 1 singuli,-ae,-a,one each. 30 triceni 2 bini,-ae,-a,two each. 40 quadrageni 3 terni(trim) 50 quinquaggni 4 quaterni 60 sexagem 5 quini 70 septuageni 6 seni 80 octogeni 7 septeni 90 nonageni 8 octoni 100 centeni 9 noveni 102 centeni bini 10 deni 125 centeni viceni quini 11 undgni 200 duceni 12 duodeni 300 treceni 13 terni deni 400 quadringeni 14 quaterni deni 500 quingeni 15 quini deni 600 sexceni (sesceni) 16 seni deni 700 septingeni 17 septeni deni 800 octingeni 18 octoni deni,duodeviceni 900 nongeni 19 noveni deni,undeviceni 1000 singula milia 20 viceni 2000 bina milia 21 viceni singuli 3000 trina milia 22 viceni bini,bini et viceni 10,000 dena milia 28 duodetriceni 100,000 centena milia 29 iindetriceni These answer the question quoteni,how many each ? REMARKS.1.The Gen.Pl.masc.and neuter ends usually in -um, except that singulus has always singulorum,and CICERO uses binorum. 2.The Distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to our idiom,whenever repetition is involved,as in the multiplication table.But when singuli is expressed,the Cardinal may be used. 3.The Distributives are used with pluralia tantum : binae litterae, two epistles.But with these uni is used for one,trini for three : unae litterae,trinae litterae. 4.The same rules as to the insertion or omission of et apply to the Distributives as to the Ordinals(96,1.3,4). NOTES.1.The poets and later prose writers occasionally use the Distributives for Cardinals,with words other than pluralia tantum(R.3);also some forms of the Singular.Especially noteworthy is the combination trinum nundinum,which is technical,and therefore found also in model prose. 2.Parallel forms not found in classical times are quadrini(early,late),and the late du(o)centni,trecenteni,quadringenteni,quingenteni,ses(x)centeni, milleni,etc. [54 NUMERALS.] 4.Multiplicative Numerals. Only the following forms occur : 1 simplex, single, 5 quincuplex 2 duplex, double, 7 septemplex 3 triplex, triple, 10 decemplex 4 quadruplex, quadruple. 100 centuples These answer the question,how many fold ? 5.Proportional Numerals. Only the following forms occur : 1 simplus,-a,-um,single, 4 quadruplus 2 duplus,double. 7 septuplus 3 triplus 8 octuplus These answer the question,how many times as great ? 98.NUMERAL ADVERBS. 1 semel,once, 22 bis et vicies,vicies et bis, 2 bis,twice. vicies bis * 3 ter 30 tricies 4 quater 40 quadragies 5 quinquies(-ens) 50 quinquagies 6 sexies(-ens) 60 sexagies 7 septies(-ens) 70 septuagies 8 octies(-ens) 80 octogies 9 novies(-ens) 90 nonagies 10 decies(-ens) 100 centies 11 undecies(-ens) 200 ducenties 12 duodecies,etc. 400 quadringentios 13 ter decies,tredecies 500 quingenties 14 quater decies,quattuordecies 600 sexcenties(sescentieo) 15 quinquies decies,quindecies 700 septingenties 16 sexies decies,sedecies 800 octingenties 17 septies decies 900 nongenties 18 duodevicies,octies decies 1,000 millies 19 uudevicies,novies decies 2,000 bis millies 20 vicies 100,000 centies millies 21 semel et vicies,vicies et semel, 1,000,000 millies millies,decies cen- vicies semel * ties millies These answer the question quotiens(es);how often ? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------* * Not semel vcies,bis vicies,etc.,because that would be,once twenty times = 20 times;twice twenty times = 40 times;this,however,does not hold for numerals between 10 and 20. [PRONOUNS.55] REMARKS.1.These adverbs,from quinquies on,have an older form in -ens; quinquiens. In totiens,so often, and quotiens,how often,t his remained the more usual form in classical times. 2.The combination of an adverb with a distributive adjective was much liked by the Romans : as bis bina for quaterna,etc. But the normal forms are not unfrequent. NOTE.For the adverbs from undecies on,examples are very rare,and some are cited only from the grammarians.So,when two forms are given,one is often due to the grammarians;thus quinquies decies, sexies decies, are cited only from PRISCIAM .The order,too,of compound adverbs varies. PRONOUNS. 99.Pronouns point out without describing. NOTE.The pronoun is not a word used instead of a noun.The noun says too much,for all nouns(proper as well as common) are originally descriptive;the pronoun simply points out.The noun says too little,because it cannot express person,as ego, I,tu,thou;it cannot express local appurtenance,as hic,this(here),ille,that(there). A.PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 100.I.Personal Pronouns of the First Person. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. SG.-N.ego, I, G. mei, of me, meus,-a,-um,mine or my. D. mihi, to,for me, Ac.me, me, Ab.me, from,with,by me. PL.- N.nos, we. G.nostri. of us. nostrum, noster,nostra,nostrum,our or ours. D.nobis, to,for us. Ac.nos, us, Ab.nobis, from,with,by us. REMARKS.I.The Voc.Sing.masc.of meus is mi, except when meus is used with a substantive which does not change its form in the Voc.; thus, meus ocellus(PLAUT.; possibly,however,appositional),but mi anime. 2.Nostrum in the Gen.Pl.is the form for the Partitive Genitive. NOTES.1.Early Latin shows the following : SG.,N.ego;G.mis;D.mi,mihei (inscr.);mihe(inscr.);Ac.med,meme;Ab.med(meme is doubtful);Pl.,N.Ac. enos(in Carmen Arvale only);G.nostrorum,nostrarum(for nostrum);D.Ab. nobeis(inscr.). 2.In late Latin mi also serves for the Voc.Sing.fem,and Voc.Pl.masc. Meum,nostrum,in the Gen.Pl.of the Possessives,are not unfrequent in early Latin. 3.The forms of meus,of tui and tuos,of sui and suos,very frequently suffer Synizesis(727) in early Latin. 4.On the combination of these pronouns with -met and -pte see 103,N.2,3. [56 PRONOUNS] 101.II.Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. SG.N.V. tu, thou, G. tui, of thee, D. tibi, to,for thee, tuus(tuos),-a,-um(tuom),thy or thine. Ac. te, thee, Ab. te, from,with,by thee. PL.N.vos, ye or you, G.vestri, of you, vestmm, vester(archaic voster),vestra,vestrum, D.vobis, to,for you, your or yours. Ac.vos, you, Ab.vobis, from,with,by you. NOTES.1.Early forms are : G.tis;D.tibei(inscr.),tibe(inscr.);Ac.Ab.ted, tete;PL.G.vostri,vostrorum,-arum. 2.Vestrum is for the Partitive Genitive. 3.Tuom and vostrom in the Gen.PL of the Possessives are rare and confined to early Latin. 4.On Synizesis see 100,N.3.On combination with -met or -pte see 102,N.2,3. III.Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. 102.The original personal pronoun of the third person, together with its possessive,is used only as a reflexive in Latin,and therefore lacks a Nominative.Its place is taken in the oblique cases by the Determinative is(103). DETERMINATIVE. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. SG.N.[is,ea,id], he,she,it, supplied by the Genitive. G. eius, of him, eius,his,hers,its. etc. PL.N.[ei,ii,i;eae,ea], they, G. eorum,earum,eorum, of them, eorum,earum,eorum,their or theirs, etc. REFLEXIVE. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. SG.-N.-- G. sui, of him,her,it(self), suus(suos),-a,-um(suom),his, D. sibi, to,for,him(self),her(self), her(s),its(own). Ac.se,sese, him(self),her(self), Ab.se,sese, from,with,by him(self). PL.N. G. sui,of them(selves), suus(suos),-a,-um(suom),their D. sibi,to,for them(selves), (own),theirs. Ac.se,sese,them(selves), Ab.se,sese,from,with,by them(selves). [PRONOUNS.57] NOTES.1.Inscriptions show sibei.The use of sese in classical prose is regulated mainly by artistic reasons.Suom in Gen.Pl.from suus is rare and early. 2.The enclitic -met may be added to all the forms of ego(except nostrum),to all the forms of tu(except tu and vestrum),to sibi,se,and some forms of suus; egomet,I myself. Instead of tumet, tute is found;from which early poets formed occasionally tutemet,tutimet. Met is also occasionally appended to forms of meus (early) and tuus(late). 8.The enclitic -pte is joined very rarely to forms of the Personal Pronoun(mepte, PL.,Men.1059);more often to the Abl.Sing,of the Possessives;it is especially common with suo; suopte ingenio,by his own genius. 4.From noster and vester and also from cuius,whose ? are formed the Gentile adjectives of one ending : nostras,of our country; vestras,of your country; cuias, of whose country ? G.nostratis,vestratis,cuiatis. 103. B.DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. 1.is,he,that. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N.is, ea, id, ii,ei,i, eae, ea, G.eius, eius, eius, eorum, earum, eorum, D.ei, ei, ei, iis,eis,is, Ac.eum, eam, id, eos, eas, ea, Ab.eo, ea, eo. iis,eis,is. NOTE. The following variations in the forms are found : N.it for id(post-cl.); G.eiius(inscr.),eius(early poetry); D.eiei(inscr.),ei,ei(early poetry),eae (f .); Ac.em,im(early),for eum; PL N.eis,eeis,ieis,iei(early and rare),for ei; the usual classical form is ii; G.eum(inscr.) for eorum; D.eieis,eeis,ieis(inscr.),ibus(early poetry and rare);the usual classical form is iis. The early forms sum, sam,sos,sas,for eum,eam,eos,eas,are cited by FESTUS. Acc.and Abl.Sing,and Gen.PL often suffer Synizesis in early poetry. 2.Idem(is + dem),the same. SINGULAR. PLURAL.  N.idem, eadem, idem, idem,eidem,iidem, eaedem, eadem,  G.eiusdem, eiusdem, eiusdem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem, D.eidem, eidem, eidem, isdem, eisdem, iisdem, Ac.eundem, eandem, idem, eosdem, easdem, eadem, Abl.eodem, eadem, eodem, isdem, eisdem, iisdem. NOTE.Variations in form : N.eidem,isdem(inscr.,early) for idem;D.idem (inscr.) for eidem; PL N.idem(more usual in poetry),eisdem,isdem(inscr.); D.Ab.iisdem(rare),eisdem(uncommon in classical prose).Synizesis is common. 3.ipse(perhaps is + pse),he,self. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, ipsi, ipsae, ipsa, G. ipsius, ipsius, ipsius, ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsorum. D. ipsi, ipsi, ipsi, ipsis, ipsis, ipsis, Ac.ipsum, ipsam, ipsum, ipsos, ipsas, ipsa, Ab.ipso, ipsa. ipso. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis. [58 PRONOUNS.] NOTES.1.In the earlier time the first part of ipse was also declined,thus : N. eapse;Ac.eumpse,eampse;Ab.eopse,eapse. Other forms are doubtful. 2.For ipse the form ipsus was very commonly employed in early Latin,but fades out with TERENCE,and later is only sporadic. 3.Inflectional variations are : D.ipso,ipsae(late);PL N.ipsei(inscr.).The few other forms are uncertain.Ipsius is dissyllabic twice in TERENCE. 4.PLAUTUS shows ipsissimus(comp.Gr.autotatos),and in late Latin ipsimus and ipsima are found.A post-Ciceronian colloquialism was isse,issa. 5.Ipse combines with -met : ipsemet and ipsimet(N.PL),both rare. 104. C.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. I.Demonstrative Pronoun for the First Person. hic,this. SG.N. hic, haec, hoc, PL.hi, hae, haec,these, G. huius, huius, huius, horum, harum horum, D. huic, huic, huic, his, his, his, Ac. hunc, hanc, hoc, hos, has, haec, Abl. hoc, hac, hoc. his, his, his. NOTES.1.The full forms of hic in -ce are still found in limited numbers in early Latin; G. hoiusce(in the phrase huiusce modi,the form is common in the classical period and later); D. hoice(inscr.); PL N. heisce,hisce(not uncommon); G. horunce(rare); D.,Ab.hisce(in PLAUT.and TER.usually before vowels); Ac. hosce,hasce(not uncommon;occasionally in Cic.). 2.Other variations in form are : G. huius and hūīūs(in early poetry for metrical reasons); D. hae(rare and early); Ac. honc; PL N. hei,heis for hi,    haec for hae(hi PLAUT.and TER.regularly before vowels or h,occasionally before consonants;occasionally also in classical times and later); G.horunc,harunc(early). PL N.hic for hi and D.Ab.hibus for his are doubtful. 3.Hic combines with -ne.Usually -ne was appended to hice,etc.,and the e weakened to i. Sometimes -ne is added directly to the regular forms.The examples are frequent in early Latin,but occur also in Cic.and later writers : hicine,haecine,hocine,huicine,huncine,hancine,hocine,hacine,haecine(N.PL fem.), haecine(N.PL neut.),hiscine,hoscine,hascine; also hicne,haecne,hocne,huiusne,huncne,hancne,hocne,hacne,haecne,hosne,hasne. II.Demonstrative Pronoun for the Second Person. iste,that. SG,.N. iste, ista, istud, PL. isti, istae, ista, G. istius, istius, istius, istorum,istarum,istorum, D. isti, isti, isti, istis, istis, istis, Ac. istum, istam, istud, istos, istas, ista, Abl. isto, ista, isto. istis, istis, istis. NOTES.1.The Dat.Sing,shows isto in late and istae in early Latin. 2.iste combines with -ce. In a very few cases(three times in early,once in late Latin) this -ce is retained unchanged,but usually it is shortened to -c. The following forms occur,all except "istuc"(more common than istud in classical Latin) and "istaec"(neuter,occasionally in Cic.,Ep.and later),being wholly confined to early and late Latin. [PRONOUNS.59] N. istic, istaec, istuc(istoc,once); D. istic, istic, istic; Ac. istunc, istanc istuc; Ab. istoc, istac istoc. PL.N.istaec(f.),istaec(n.). 3.In a few cases in PLAUT.and TER. -ne is appended to istice,etc., the preceding e being weakened to i : istucine, istocine, istacine, istoscin'. III.Demonstrative Pronoun for the Third Person. SG. N. ille, illa, illud, PL.illi, illae, illa, G. illius,illius,illius, illorum illarum,illorum, D. illi, illi, illi, illis, illis, illis, Ac.illum, illam, illud, illos, illas, illa, Ab.illo, illa, illo. illis, illis, illis. NOTES.1.The older forms from stem ollo- occur on early inscriptions,in laws,and in the poets(except PLAUT.and TER.),even to a very late period,as follows : N. ollus,-e(early); D. olli; Pl. N. olli, olla; G. ollom, ollarum(early); D. olleis, ollis; Ac. ollos(early). 2.Inscriptions show illut occasionally for illud.Other rare forms are : G.illi (doubtful); D.illae;Pl.N.illei.illius is often dissyllabic in early Latin. 3.ille often combines with -ce,which is,however,usually shortened to -c : illiusce,illace,illoce,illosce,illasce,illisce,all in early Latin;shortened forms : N. illic, illaec, illuc; D. illic; Ac. illunc, illanc; Ab. illoc, illac; Pl. N. illaec(f.), illaec(n.), all with rare exceptions confined to PLAUTUS and TERENCE. 4.A few cases of combination with -ne : illicine,illancine occur in PLAUTUS and TERENCE. 105. D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. qui(Substantive and Adjective),who. SG.N. qui, quae, quod, PL.qui, quae, quae, G. cuius, cuius, cuius, quorum, quarum, quorum, D. cui, cui, cui, quibus, quibus, quibus, Ac. quem, quam, quod, quos, quas, quae, Ab. quo, qua, quo. quibus, quibus, quibus. General Relatives are : Substantive, quisquis,whoever, quidquid,quicquid, whatever. Adjective. (quiqui,quaequae,quodquod), whosoever. quicunque,quaecunque,quodcunque, whichever. NOTES.1.Archaic and legal are quis and quid as relatives. 2.The prevalent form of Gen.on inscriptions of the Republican period and in early Latin is quoius; quius, cuiius, and other variations are also found. Other archaic forms are : D., quoi. D.Pl,queis. D.Pl.quis(quīs) is common in the poets at all periods;and also in prose writers;but not cited from CAESAR,and only from the letters of CICERO. 3.The Abl.Sing, quī for all genders is the prevalent form in early times,and in combination with cum is preferred to quo,qua by CICERO. 4. Quisquis is occasionally used as an adjective,but not in classical Latin. Occasionally,also,but rarely in CICERO,it is used for quisque, quidque. The Nom.Sing. of the adjective quiqui,etc., probably does not occur.In the other cases the forms are [60 PRONOUNS.] the same as those of quisquis and can be distinguished only by the usage.In combination with modi we find cuicui in Gen.sometimes in CICERO. In the Plural the only form found is quibusquibus.(Liv.XLI.,8,10.) 5.In quicumque the -cumque is often separated by tmesis.The only variations in form are queiquomque,quescumque in early Latin,and occasionally quiscumque for quibuscumque(several times in CICERO). 106.E.INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Substantive. quis ? who ? quid ? what? Adjective. qui ? quae ? quod ? which ? Subst.and Adj. uter ? utra ? utrum ? who,which of two ? SG.N. quis ? quid ? who ? what ? POSSESSIVE. G. cuius ? cuius ? whose? cuius,cuia,cuium,whose ? D. cui ? cui? to,for whom ? Ac. quem ? quid ? whom ? what ? Ab. quo ? quo ? from,with,by whom or what ? The plural of the substantive interrogative pronoun and both numbers of the adjective interrogative pronoun coincide with the forms of the relative qui,quae,quod,who,which. Strengthened Interrogatives. Substantive,quisnam ? who,pray ? quidnam ? what,pray ? ecquis ? is there any one who ? ecquid ? Adjective, quinam ? quaenam ? quodnam ? which,pray ? ecqui? ecqua?(ecquae)? ecquod? REMARK.In the poets qui is sometimes found as a substantive for quis in independent sentences.In dependent sentences the use always fluctuates.A difference in meaning can hardly be made other than that qui is generally used in much the same sense as qualis.On the other hand,quis is often used as an adjective for qui;usually,however,the substantive which follows is best looked upon as in apposition.In the classical period qui is the normal form for the adjective in dependent questions. NOTES.1.Inscriptions show here and there quit and quot for quid and quod. Quid is sometimes used for quod,but usually in the phrase quid nomen tibi est and only in early Latin.Sometimes quae seems to be used as a substantive,but another explanation is always possible. 2.In the oblique cases the same variations occur as in the oblique cases of the relative.The Abl. qui means how ? 3.For the declension of uter see 76. 4.The possessive cuius(quoius),-a,-um was used both as relative and as interrogative.It is frequent in PLAUT.and TER.,but rare in other authors. [PRONOUNS.61] Besides the Nom. the only forms found are Ac.quoium, quoiam; Ab.quoia; Pl.N.quoiae,and, perhaps,G.Pl.quoium. 5.Quisnam is sometimes used as an adjective for quinam and quinam occasionally for quisnam as a substantive.The -nam may be separated by tmesis. Ecquis and ecqui are not common,and are subject to the same fluctuations as quis and qui. Ecquis combines with -nam to form ecquisnam and a few other occasional forms, as : ecquaenam,ecquidnam,ecquodnam,ecquonam,ecquosnam. 107.F.INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1.Substantive,aliquis,aliqua(rare),aliquid,| somebody,some one quis,qua,quid, | or other. Adjective.aliqui,aliqua,aliquod, | | some,any. qui,quae,qua,quod, | REMARK.The common rule is that quis and qui occur properly only after si,nisi,ne,num,or after a relative; otherwise aliquis,aliqui. NOTES.1.Aliquis and quis are not unfrequently need as adjectives instead of aliqui,qui,but rarely in early Latin.Occasionally(not in early Latin) aliqui is used as a substantive.Qui is also so used,but only after si,sin,sive,ne. The use of quid and aliquid for quod and aliquod,and of aliquod for aliquid, is very rare and late. 2.Besides the variations in form mentioned under the relative and interrogative,the indefinitive quis shows ques as an early form for qui(N.PL),and in PL Nom.Acc. neut. quae and qua in equally good usage. Aliquis shows in Abl.Sing, aliqui(rare and early), in the PL Nom.Acc.neut.always aliqua, and not unfrequently in postclassical Latin aliquis for aliquibus. 2.a certain,certain one. quidam,quaedam,quiddam(and quoddam), quidam, quaedam, quaedem cuiusdam    quorundam,quarundam,quorundam cuidam quibusdam quendam,quandam,quiddam(and quoddam), quosdam, quasdam, quaedam quodam, quadam, quodam quibudam REMARK.quidam,quaedam occur both as substantives and adjectives,but quiddam is always substantive, quoddam always adjective. The Plural is rare in early Latin(never in PLAUTUS). 3. quispiam,quaepiam,quidpiam(and quodpiam),some one,some. quisquam, ,quicquam ,any one(at all).No plural. NOTES.1.Quispiam,quaepiam are rare as adjectives.In the neuter, quippiam and quoppiam occur rarely.The comic poets do not use the Plural,and it is rare elsewhere. 2.Quisquam is seldom used as an adjective,except with designations of persons; scriptor quisquam,any writer(at all), Gallus quisquam ,any Gaul(at all). The corresponding adjective is ullus. The use of quisquam as a feminine is only in early Latin. Quidquam is a poor spelling for quicquam. In Abl.Sing,quiquam occurs occasionally.In Sing.Gen.Dat.Acc.frequently,and in Plural always,forms of ullus were used. [62 CORRELATIVES.] 4 quivis, quaevis, quidvis(and quodvis) | any one you please quilibet,quaelibet,quidlibet(and quodlibet),| you like, NOTE.--Quivis,quaevis,quilibet(archaic -lubet),quaelibet may be used either as substantives or adjectives,but quidvis,quidlibet are substantives only, quodvis,quodlibet are adjectives only. Peculiar forms of quivis are G.,quoivis in quoivismodi(PLAUT.); D.,quovis(late); Ab.,quivis(PLAUT.,TER.), and the compounds cuiusviscumque(LUCR.iii.,388) and quoviscumque(MART,xiv.,2,1). Quilibet may be separated by tmesis into qui and libet(SALL..,Cat.5,4). 5. quisque,quaeque,quidque and quodque,each one. cuiusque cuique quemque,quamque,quidque and quodque quoque ,quaque ,quoque unusquisque,unaquaeque,unumquidque and unumquodque,each one severally. NOTE.Quisque occurs occasionally in early Latin as a feminine,and with its forms is not unfrequently found in early and late Latin for quisquis,or quicumque.Quidque is substantive,quodque adjective.In the Abl.Sing,quique occurs occasionally. The Plural is regular,but rare until post-classical times.In Nom.Pl.quaeque is either fem,or neuter. 108.The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been given in 76.They are : ullus,-a,-um,any; nullus,-a,-um,no one,not one. The corresponding substantives are nemo(76) and nihil,the latter of which forms only nihili(Gen.) and nihilo(Abl.),and those only in certain combinations. nonnullus,-a,-um,some,many a,declined like nullus. alius,-a,-ud,another; the Possessive of alius is alienus. alter,-era,-erum,the other,one(of two). neuter,neutra,neutrum,neither of two. alteruter,alterutra,alterutrum,the one or the other of the two. uterque,utraque.utrumque,each of two,either, ambo,-ae,-o,both. utervis,utravis,utrumvis. } whichever you please of the two. uterlibet,utralibet,utrumlibet,} CORRELATIVES. 109.I.CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. INTERROGATIVES. DEMONSTRATIVES. RELATIVES. quis ? who ? is,that, qui, who. qualis ? of what kind ? talis, such(of that kind) qualis, as(of which kind). quantus ? how much ? tantus, so much, quantus,as much. quot ? how many ? tot, so many, quot, as many. [CORRELATIVE.63] 110.II.CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 1.Pronominal adverbs of place. ubi ? where ? ibi,there. ubi, where. qua ? where, hic,hae,here,this way. qua,where,which which way ? way. istic,istac,there,that way. illic,illac,there,yonder way. unde ? whence ? inde,thence. unde,whence. hinc,hence. istinc, thence. illinc, thence,from yonder. quo? whither ? eo, thither. quo,whither. huc,(hoc,) hither. istuc,(istoc,) thither. illuc,(illoc,) thither,yonder. 2.Pronominal adverbs of time. quando ? when ? tum, then. quando, when. tunc,at that time, quom,cum. nunc, now. quotiens ? how often ? totiens,so often. quotiens,as often as. 3.Pronominal adverbs of manner. quomodo ? qui ? how ? ita,sic,so,thus. ut,uti,as. quam ? how much ? tam,so much. quam,as. 111. III.COMPOUNDS OF THE RELATIVE FORMS. 1.The relative pronouns become indefinite by prefixing ali-: aliquantus,somewhat great; aliquot,several,some; alicubi,somewhere; alicunde,from somewhere; aliquando,at some time. 2.The simple relatives become universal by doubling themselves,or by suffixing -cunque(-cumque),sometimes -que : quantuscunque, however great; qualiscunque, of whatever kind; quotquot, however many; ubicunque, wheresoever; quandocunque,quandoque,whenever; quotiescunque, however often; utut, in whatever way; utcunqoe, howsoever; quamquam, however,although. 3.Many of the relatives are further compounded with -vis or -libet : quantuslibet, quantusvis, as great as you please; ubivis, where you will; quamvis, as you please,though. [64 THE VERB.] THE VERB. 112.The inflection given to the verbal stem is called Conjugation,and expresses : 1.Person and Number; 2.Voice Active or Passive. The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject : amo,I love. The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the action of the Verb : amor,I am loved. 3.Tense Present,Imperfect,Future,Perfect,Pluperfect,Future Perfect. The Present, amo,I love; Future, amabo,I shall love; Pure Perfect, amavi,I have loved; Future Perfect, amavero, I shall have loved, are called Principal Tenses. The Imperfect, amabam,I was loving; Historical Perfect, amavi,I loved; Pluperfect, amaveram,I had loved, are called Historical Tenses. REMARK.The Pure and Historical Perfects are identical in form. 4.Mood Indicative,Subjunctive,Imperative. The Indicative Mood is the mood of the fact : amo,I love. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of the idea : amem, may I love,I may love; amet, may he love,he may love ; si amet,if he should love. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command : ama,love thou ! For further distinctions see Syntax. 5.These forms belong to the Finite Verb.Outside of the Finite Verb,and akin to the noun,are the verbal forms called Infinitive,Supine,Participle,Gerund. The Infinitive active and the Supine are related to the noun,the former being originally a Dative or Locative and the Supine showing two cases,Accusative and Ablative. No adequate uniform translation can be given,but for the general meaning see paradigms. 113.A large number of Verbs have the passive form but are active in meaning : [THE VERB.65] hortor,I exhort. These are called deponent(from deponere,to lay aside). 114.The Inflection of the Finite Verb is effected by the addition of personal endings to the verb stems. 1.The personal endings are mostly pronominal forms,which serve to indicate not only person,but also number and voice.They are : ACTIVE.PASSIVE. SG. 1.-m(or a vowel,coalescing with -r. the characteristic ending);Pf .i, 2.-s; Pf.-s-ti; Impv.-to(d) or want -ris or -re; Impv.-re or -tor. ing, 3.-t;Impv.to(d), -tur;Impv.-tor. PL. 1.-mus, -mur. 2.-tis;Pf .-s-tis-;Impv.-te or -tote, -mini. 3.-nt;Pf .erunt or ere;Impv.-nto(d), -ntur;Impv.-ntor. 2.The personal endings are added directly to the stem in the Present Indicative and Imperative only,except in the third conjugation,in some forms of the Future Indicative.In the other tenses certain modifications occur in the stem,or tense signs are employed : (a) In the Present Subjunctive final a of .the stem is changed to ē(e); final e to ea(ea);final i to ia(ia);final e to ā(a).In the Future Indicative final e is changed to a or ē(e);final i to ia(iē,ie). (b) The tense signs are : for the Imperfect Indicative,bā(ba);for the Imperfect Subjunctive,rē(re);for the Future Indicative in a and e verbs bi(b,bu);for the Perfect Indicative,ī(i);for the Perfect Subjunctive,-eri;for the Pluperfect Indicative,erā(era);for the Pluperfect Subjunctive,issē(isse);for the Future Perfect Indicative,eri(er). 3.The stem itself is variously modified;either by change of vowel or by addition of suffixes,and appears in the following forms : (a) The Present stem;being the stem of the Present,Imperfect,and Future tenses.These forms are called the Present System. (b) The Perfect stem;being the stem of the Perfect,Pluperfect,and Future Perfect tenses.These forms are called the Perfect System. (c) The Supine* stem;being the stem of the Future Active and Perfect Passive Participles and of the Supine.These forms are called the Supine System, NOTE.For details as to the formation of these stems,see 132 ff. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * This designation is retained because it is an established terminus technicus;as a matter of fact the Supine stem is not the stem of the Participles. [66 THE VERB.] 115.1.The Perfect,Pluperfect,and Future Perfect tenses in the Passive are formed by the combination of the Perfect Passive Participle with forms of the verb sum,I am. 2.The Future Passive Infinitive is formed by the combination of the Supine with the Present Passive Infinitive of eo,I go. 3.The infinite parts of the verb are formed by the addition of the following endings to the stems : ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INFINITIVE. Pr.-re, ri,i Pf.-isse, -tum(-tam,-tum),esse Fut.-turum(-a,-am),esse, -tum iri. PARTICIPLES.Pr.-ns (G.-ntis), Pf.- -tus(-ta,-tum). Fut.-turus(-a,-um). GERUND. GERUNDIVE. SUPINE. -ndi(-do,-dum,-do). -ndus(-a,-um). -tum;-tu 116. THE VERB sum,I am. (Pres.stem es-,Perf.stem fu-) PRESENT. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. SG.1.sum, I am, sim, I be, 2.es, thou art, sis, thou be, 3.est, he,she,it is. sit, he,she,it be. PL.1.sumus, we are, simus, we be, 2.estis, you are,  sitis, you be, 3.sunt, they are. sint, they be. IMPERFECT. SG.1.eram, I was, essem, I were (forem) 2.eras, thou wast, esses, thou wert (fores) 3.erat, he was. esset, he were (foret) PL.1.eramus, we were, essemus,we were, 2.eratis, you were, essetis,you were, 3.erant, they were, essent, they were (forent) FUTURE, SG.1.ero, I shall be, 2.eris, thou wilt be, 3.erit, he will be. PL.1.erimus, we shall be, 2.eritis, you will be, 3.erunt, they mil be. [THE VERB.67] PERFECT. SG.1.fui, I have been,I fuerim,I have,may have,been, was, 2.fuisti, thou hast been, fueris,thou have,mayest have, thou wast, been, 3.fuit, he has been,he fuerit,he have,may have,been. was. PL.1.fuimus, we have been,we fuerimus,we have,may have,been, were, 2.fuistis, you have been, fueritis,you have,may have, you were, been, 3.fuerunt,fuere,they have fuerint,they have,may have, been,they were. been. PLUPERFECT. SG. 1.fueram, I had been, fuissem, I had,might have,been, 2.fueras, thou hadst been, fuisses, thou hadst,mightst have, 3.fuerat, he had been. fuisset, he had,might have,been. PL. 1.fueramus,we had been, fuissemus, we had,might have,been, 2.fueratis,you had been, fuissetis, you had,might have,been, 3.fuerant, they had been. fuissent, they had,might have,been. FUTURE PERFECT. SG. 1.fuero, I shall have been, 2.fueris, thou wilt have been, 3.fuerit, he will have been. PL. 1.fuerimus, we shall have been, 2.fueritis, you will have been, 3.fuerint, they will have been. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. PRES.esse,to be, SG. 1. PERF.fuisse,to have been, 2.es,be thou, esto,thou shalt be, FUT.futurum(-am,-um) esse 3, esto,he shall be. (fore),to be about to be. PL. 1., PARTICIPLE. 2.este,be ye, estote,you shall be, 3-, sunto,they shall be. FUT.futurus,-a,-um,about to be. [68 THE VERB.] NOTES.1.Early forms are : (a) In the Pres.Ind.es for es;regularly in PLAUTUS and TERENCE,but the quantity of the vowel is disputed. (b) In the Pres.Subjv. siem,sies,siet,sient; regular in inscriptions until the first century B.C.and common in early poets chiefly for metrical reasons;side by side with this occur fuam,fuas,fuat,fuant (also LUCR,iv.,637,VERG.x.,108,LIV. xxv.,12,6),which are taken up again by very late poete. Sit is also common. (c) In the Impf .Subjv.the forms forem,fores,foret,forent were probably in very early times equivalent to futurus essem,etc.; and occasionally this force seems to be still present in the later period,especially in SALLUST;usually,however,they are equivalent to essem,esses,esset,essent; in the Inf. fore always remained the equivalent of faturum esse. (d) In all the Perfect forms the original length was fu-,which is still found occasionally in early Latin. (e) Early and principally legal are the rare forms escit,escet,esit,for erit; -essint for erunt. 2.The Pres.Part,ie found only in the compounds; ab-sens,absent,and praesens,present. 117. COMPOUNDS OF sum,I am. absum, I am away,absent. Pf. obsum, I am against,I hurt.Pf . (abfui) afui. obfui or offui, adsum, I am present.Pf. affui. possum, I am able. desum, I am wanting. praesum,I am over,I superintend. insum, I am in. prosum, I am for,I profit. intersum, I am between. subsum, I am under.No Pf . supersum,I am,or remain,over. These are all inflected like sum;but prosum and possum require special treatment by reason of their composition. Prosum,I profit. 118.In the forms of prosum,prod is used before vowels. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. prosum,prodes,prodest, prosim, prosumus,prodestis,prosunt, IMPERFECT. proderam, prodessem, FUTURE. prodero, PERFECT. profui, profuerim, PLUPERFECT. profueram, profuissem. Fut.PERF. profuero, INFINITIVE.PRES,prodesse;FUT.profuturum esse(fore);PERF.profuisse. Possum,I am able,I can. 119.Possum is compounded of pot(potis,pote) and sum; t becomes s before s;in the perfect forms,f(potfui) is lost. [THE VERB.69] INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. SG. 1.possum,I am able,can, possim,I be able. 2.potes, possis, 3.potest. possit. PL. 1.possumus, possimus, 2.potestis, possitis, 3.possunt. possint. IMPERFECT. SG.1.poteram,I was able,could, possem,I were,might be,able. 2.poteras, posses, 3.poterat. posset. PL.1.poteramus, possemus, 2.poteratis, possetis, 3.poterant. possent. FUTURE. SG. 1.potero,I shall be able. 2.poteris, 3.poterit. PL. 1.poterimus, 2.poteritis, 3.poterunt. PERFECT. SG.1.potui,I have been able, potuerim,I have,may have,been able. 2.potuisti, potueris, 3.potuit. potuerit. PL. 1.potuimus, potuerimus, 2.potuistis, potueritis, 3.potuerunt. potuerint. PLUPERFECT . SG. 1.potueram,I had been able. potuissem, I had,might have,been able. 2.potueras, potuisses, 3.potuerat. potuisset. PL. 1.potueramus, potuissemus, 2.potueratis, potuissetis, 3.potuerant. potuissent. [70 REGULAR VERBS.] FUTURE PERFECT. SG.1.potuero,I shall have been PL.1.potuerimus, 2.potueris, [able, 2.potueritis, 3.potuerit. 3.potuerint. INFINITIVE.PRES.,posse,to be able.PERF.,potuisse,to have been able. NOTES.1.In the early Latin the fusion of the two parts of the compound has not fully taken place;we accordingly find not unfrequently : potis sum, potis es, potis est, potis sunt; potis siem, potis sis, potis sit, potis sint; potis erat; pote fuisset; and sometimes(even in classical and Augustan poete) potis and pote alone, the copula being omitted.Partial fusion is seen in Inf. potesse,potisse;Subjv. potisit(inscr.),potisset. 2.Occasional passive forms(followed by a passive infinitive) are found in early Latin(not in PLAUT.or TER.) and LUCRETIUS : potestur, possetur, possitur, poteratur. Poterint for poterunt is doubtful.     REGULAR VERBS. SYSTEMS OF CONJUGATION. 120.1.There are two Systems of Conjugation,the Thematic and the Nonthematic(132). The Nonthematic is confined to a small class.The Thematic System comprises four Conjugations,distinguished by the vowel characteristics of the present stem,a,e,e,i,which may be found by dropping re from the Present Infinitive Active.The consonant preceding the short vowel stem-characteristic is called the consonant stem-characteristic. 2.From the Present stem,as seen in the Present Indicative and Present Infinitive active;from the Perfect stem, as seen in the Perfect Indicative active;and from the Supine stem,can be derived all the forms of the verb. These tenses are accordingly called the Principal Parts; and in the regular verbs appear in the four conjugations as follows : PRES.IND.PRES.INF. PERF.IND. SUPINE. I. amo, amare, amavi, amatum, to love. II. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to blot out. moneo, monere, monui, monitum, to remind. III.emo, emere, emi, em(p)tum, to buy. statuo, statuere, statui, statutum, to settle. scribo, scribere, scripsi, scriptum, to write. capio. capere, cepi, captum, to take. IV. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, to hear. [REGULAR VERBS.71] Rules for forming the Tenses. 121.1 The Present System. From the Present stem as obtained by dropping re of the Pres.Inf.Active,form a.Pres.Subjv.by changing final a to e,e to ea,e to a(or ia),i to ia, and adding m for active,r for passive;Pres.Impv.Passive by adding re; Fut.Impv.by adding to for Active and tor for the Passive;Pres. Part,by adding ns and lengthening preceding vowel;Gerund by adding ndi after shortening a and e,changing i to ie,and in a few verbs e to ie.Pres.Impv.Active is the same as the stem;Pres.Indic.Passive may be formed from Pres.Indic.Act.by adding r(after shortening o). b.Impf.Indic.by adding -bam for active and -bar for passive to the stem in the first and second conjugations;to the lengthened stem in the third and fourth(e to e or ie,i to ie);Impf.Subjv.by adding the endings rem and rer,or by adding m and r respectively to the Pres. Inf.Active. c.Future,by adding -bo and -bor to the stem in the first and second conjugations;-m and -r in the third and in the fourth(e being changed to a(ia);i,to ia). 2.The Perfect System.From the Perfect stem as obtained by dropping final i of the Perfect,form a.Perf.Subjv.Active by adding -erim;Perf.Inf.Active by adding -isse. b.Plupf.Indic.Active by adding -eram;Plup.Subjv.Active by adding -issem. c.Fut.Perf.Active by adding -ero, 3.The Supine System.From the Supine stem as obtained by drop ping final -m of the Supine,form a.Perf.Part.Passive by adding -s. b.Fut.Part.Active by adding -rus(preceding u being lengthened to u). c.The Compound Tenses in the Passive and the Periphrastic forms by combining these Participles with forms of esse,to be. REMARK.--Euphonic changes in the consonant stem-characteristic. Characteristic b before s and t becomes p;g and qu before t become c;c,g,qu,with s,become x;t and d before s are assimilated,and then sometimes dropped.See further,9. scribo,scripsi,scriptum; lego,lectum; coquo,coctum; dico,dixi (dicsi); iungo,iunxi(iungsi); coquo,coxi(coqusi); edo,esum(ed sum); cedo,cessi(cedsi); mitto,misi(mitsi),missum(mitsum). [72.REGULAR VERBS] 122 First Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF amare,to love. PRIN.PARTS : amo,amare,amavi,amatum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Am loving,do love,love. Be loving,may love. SG. 1.amo, amem, 2.amas, ames. 3.amat, amet. PL. 1.amamus, amemus, 2.amatis, ametis, 3.amant, ament. IMPERFECT. Was loving,loved. Were loving,might love. SG. 1.amabam, amarem, 2.amabas, amares, 3.amabat, amaret. PL. 1.amabamus, amaremus, 2.amabatis, amaretis, 3.amabant, amarent. FUTURE. Shall be loving,shall love. SG.1.amabo, 2.amabis, 3.amabit, PL.1.amabimus, 2.amabitis, 3.amabunt. PERFECT. Have loved,did love. Have,may have,loved, SG. 1.amavi, amaverim, 2.amavisti, amaveris, 3.amavit, amaverit. PL. 1.amavimus, amaverimus, 2.amavistis, amaveritis, 3.amaverunt(amere), amaverint. [REGULAR VERBS.73] First Conjugation. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PLUPERFECT. Had loved. Had,might have,loved. SG.1.amaveram, amavissem, 2.amaveras, amavisses, 3.amaverat, amavisset. PL.1.amaveramus, amavissemus, 2.amaveratis, amavissetis, 3.amaverant, amavissent. FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have loved. SG.1.amavero, 2.amaveris, 3.amaverit. PL.1.amaverimus, 2.amaveritis, 3.amaverint. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG.1.,, 2,ama, love thou, amato, thou shalt love, 3.. amato, he shall love. PL.1., 2.amate,love ye, amatote, ye shall love. 3., amanto, they shall love. INFNITIVE. PRES.amare,to love. PERF.amavisse,to have loved. FUT.amaturum,am,um esse,to be about to love. GERUND. SUPINE. N.[amare],loving. G.amandi,of loving. D.amando,to loving. Ac.[amare], Ac.amatum,to love. (ad) amandum, loving,to love. Ab.amando, by loving. Ab.amatu,to love,in the loving. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT.N.amans(G.amantis),loving. FUTURE.amaturus,a,um,being about to love. [74 REGULAR VERBS.] First Conjugation. PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Am loved. Be,may be,loved. SG.1.amor amer 2.amaris(amare) ameris(amere) 3.amatur ametur. PL.I.amamur amemur 2.amamini amemini 3.amantur amentur. IMPERFECT. Was loved. Were,might be,loved. SG.1.amabar amarer 2.amabaris(amabare) amareris(amarere) 3.amabatur amaretur. PL.1.amabamur amaremur 2.amabamini amaremini 3.amabantur amarentur FUTURE. Shall be loved. SG.1.amabor 2.amaberis(amabare) 3.amabitur. PL.1.amabimur 2.amabimini 3.amabuntur. PERFECT. Have been loved,was loved.    Have,may have,been loved. SG.1.amatus,a,um sum amatus,a,um sim 2. es sis 3 est sit PL.1.amati,ae,a sumus amati,ae,a simus 2. estis sitis 3. sunt sint. [REGULAR VERBS.75] First Conjugation. PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PLUPERFECT. Had been loved. Had,might have,been loved. SG. 1.amatus,a,am eram amatus,a,am essem 2. eras esses 3. erat esset PL.1.amati,ae,a eramus amati,ae,a essemas 2. eratis essetis 3. erant. esseiit. FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have been loved. SG.1.amatus,a,um ero 2. eris 3. erit. PL.1.amati,ae,a erimas 2. eritis 3. erant. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. Sg.1.,, 2.amare,be thou loved. amator,thou shall be loved, 3., amator,he shall be loved. PL.1.,, 2.amamini,be ye loved., 3.. amantor,they shall be loved. INFINITIVE. PRES.amari,to be loved. PERF.amatum,am,am esse,to have been loved. FUT.amatum iri,to be about to be loved. FUT.PF.amatum,am,am fore. PARTICIPLE. GERUNDIVE. PERF,amatus,a,am,loved. amandus,a,am,(one) to be loved. [76 REGULAR VERBS.] 123. Second Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF delere,to destroy(blot out). PRIN.PARTS : deleo,delere,delevi,deletum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. SG.deleo, deleam, deleor, delear, deles, deleas, deleris(delere), delearis(deleare), delet, deleat, deletur, deleatur, PL,delemus, deleamus, delemur, deleamur, deletis, deleatis, delemini, deleamini, delent. deleant. delentur. deleantur. IMPERFECT. SG.delebam, delerem, delebar, delerer, delebas, deleres, delebaris(delebare),delereris(delerere), delebat, deleret, delebatur, deleretur, PL.delebamus, deleremus, delebamur, deleremur, delebatis, deleretis, delebamini, deleremini, delebant. delerent. delebantur, delerentur. FUTURE. SG.delebo, delebor, delebis, deleberis(delebere), delebit, delebitur, PL. delebimus, delebimur, delebitis, delebimini, delebunt. delebuntur. PERFECT. SG.delevi, deleverim, deletus sum, deletus sim, delevisti, deleveris, es, sis delevit, deleverit, est, sit. PL.delevimus, deleverimus, deleti sumus, deleti simus, delevistis, deleveritis, estis, sitis, deleverunt(delevere) deleverint sunt, sint. [REGULAR VERBS.77] Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. SG.deleveram, delevissem, deletus eram, deletus essem, deleveras, delevisses, eras, esses, deleverat, delevisset. erat, esset. PL.deleveramus, delevissemus, deleti eramus, deleti essemus, deleveratis, delevissetis, eratis, essetis, deleverant, delevissent. erant, essent. FUTURE PERFECT. SG.delevero, deletus ero, deleveris, eris, deleverit, erit. PL.deleverimus, deleti erimus, deleveritis, eritis, deleverint, erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE.  PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. dele, deleto, delere, deletor, deleto, deletor. PL. delete, deletote, delemini, delento. delentor. INFINITIVE. PRES.delere. PRES. deleri. PERF.delevisse. PERF. deletum,am,um esse. FUT. deleturum,am,um esse. FUT. deletum iri. FUT.PF. deletum,am,um fore. GERUND. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. N.[delere], PRES.N.delens;G.delentis. G.delendi. FUT. deleturus,a,um. D.delendo. PERF. deletus,a,um. Ac.[delere] Ac.deletum. (ad) delendum. GERUNDIVE, Ab.delendo. Ab.deletu. delendus,a,um. [78 REGULAR VERBS.] 124.Like delere,to destroy, are conjugated only, nere,to spin, flere,to weep, and the compounds of -plere,fill, and -olere grow (the latter with Supine in itum); also ciere,to stir up.See 13 7(b). All other verbs of the Second Conjugation retain the characteristic e in the Present System,but drop it in the Perfect System, changing vi to ui,and weaken it to i in the Supine System. Second Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF monere,to remind. PRIN.PARTS : moneo,monere,monui,monitum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. SG.moneo, moneam, moneor, monear, mones, moneas, moneris(monere), monearis(moneare), monet, moneat, monetur, moneatur, PL.monemus, moneamus, monemur, moneamur, monetis, moneatis, monemini, moneamini, monent. moneant. monentur. moneantur. IMPERFECT. SG .monebam, monerem, monebar, monerer, monebas, moneres, monebaris(monebare), monereris(monerere), monebat, moneret, monebatur, moneretur, PL.monebamus, moneremus, monebamur, moneremur, monebatis, moneretis, monebamini, moneremini, monebant. monerent. monebantur. monerentur. FUTURE. SG.monebo, monebor, monebis, moneberis(monebere), monebit, monebitur, PL monebimus, monebimur, monebitis, monebimini, monebunt. monobuntur. PERFECT. SG.monui, monuerim, monitus sum, monitus sim, monuisti, monueris, es, sis, monuit, monuerit, est, sit, PL.monuimus, monuerimus, moniti sumus, moniti simus monuistis, monueritis, estis, sitis, monuerunt(monuerere).monuerint. sunt. sint. [REGULAR VERBS.79] Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. Sg.monueram, monuissem, monitus eram. monitus essem, monueras, monuisses, eras, esses, monuerat, monuisset. erat, esset, : PL.monueramus, monuissemus, moniti eramus, moniti essemus, monueratis, monuissetis, eratis, essetis, monuerant. monuissent. erant. essent. FUTURE PERFECT. SG. monuero, monitus ero, monueris, eris, monuerit, erit, PL. monuerimus, moniti erimus, monueritis, eritis, monuerint. erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. mone, moneto, monere, monetor, PL. moneto, monetor, monete, monetete, monemini, monento. monentor. INFINITIVE. PRES.monere. PRES.moneri PERF.monuisse. PERF.monitum,am,um esse. FUT.moniturum,am,um esse. FUT. monitum iri. FUT.PF.monitum,am,um fore. GERUND. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. N.[monere]. PRES. N.monens; G.monentis. G.monendi. FUT. moniturus,a,um. D.monendo. PERF. monitus,a,um. Ac.[monere]  Ac.monitum. (ad) monendum. GERUNDIVE, Ab.monendo.  Ab.monitu. monendus,a,um, [80 REGULAR VERBS.] 125. Third Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF emere,to buy. PRIN.PARTS : emo,emere,emi,em(p)tum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV.    INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. SG emo, emam, emor, emar, emis, emas, emeris(emere), emaris(emare), emit, emat, emitur, ematur, PL.emimus, emamus, emimur, emamur, emitis, ematis, emimini. emamini, emunt. emant. emuntur. emantur. IMPERFECT. SG.emebam, emerem. emebar, emerer, emebas, emeres, emebaris(emebare), emereris(emerere), emebat, emeret, emebatur, emeretur. PL.emebamus, emeremus, emebamur, emeremur, emebatis, emeretis, emebamini, emeremini, emebant. emerent. emebantur. emerentur, FUTURE. SG.emam, emar, emes, emeris(emere)(e=ē), emet, emetur, PL.ememus, ememur, emetis, ememini, ement ementur. PERFECT. SG.emi, emerim, emptus sum. emptus sim, emisti, emeris, es, sis, emit, emerit, est, sit, PL.emimus, emerimus, empti sumus. empti simus, emistis, emeritis, estis. sitis. emerunt(emere) emerint. sont. sint. [REGULAR VERBS.81] Third Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. SG.emeram, emissem, emptus eram, emptus essem, emeras, emisses, eras, esses, emerat, emisset, erat, esset, PL.emeramus, emissemus, empti eramus, empti essemus, emeratis, emissetis. eratis, essetis. emerant. emissent. erant. essent. FUTURE PERFECT. SG.emero, emptus ero, emeris, eris, emerit, erit, PL.emerimus, empti erimus, emeritis, eritis, emerint. erint. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. eme, emito, emere emitor, emito, emitor PL emite emitote, emimini. eminto emuntor. INFINITIVE. PRES.emere. PRES.emi PERF.emisse. PERF.emptum,am,um esse. FUT. empturum,am,um esse. FUT.emptum iri FUT.PF.emptum,am,um fore . GERUND. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES N.[emere]. PRES. N.emens;G.ementis G emendi. FUT. empturus,a,um. . D.emendo. PERF. emptus,a,um.. Ac.[emere] Ac.emptum. (ad)emendum, GERUNDIVE. Ab.emendo. Ab.emptu. emendus,a,um. [82 REGULAR VERBS.] 126.Many verbs of the third conjugation with stem in ie(Pres Indic.in io) weaken this ie to e before re, and to i before m,s and t in all tenses of the Present System except the Futur. Otherwise they follow the inflection of emere. These verbs are capio,cupio,facio,fodio,fugio,iacio,pario,quatio,rapio,sapio, and their compounds;also compounds of -licio, -spicio, and the deponents gradior and its compound; morior and its compounds, patior and its compounds. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT SYSTEM OF capere,to take. PRIN.PARTS : capio,capere,cepi,captum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. SG. capio, capiam, capior, capiar, capis, capiat, caperis(capere), capiaris(capiare), capit, capias, capitur, capiatur, PL. capimus, capiamus, capimur, capiamur, capitis, capiatis, capimini, capiamini, capiunt. capiant. capiuntur. capiantur. IMPERFECT. SG.capiebam, caperem, capiebar, caperer, capiebas, caperes, capiebaris(capiebare),capereris(caperere), capiebat, caperet, capiebatur, caperetur. PL.capiebamus, caperemus, capiebamur, caperemur, capiebatis, caperetis, capiebamini, caperemini, capiebant. caperent. capiebantur. caperentur, FUTURE. SG.capiam, capiar, capies, capiaris(capiare), capiet, capietur PL.capiemus, capiemur capietis, capiemini, capient. capientur. IMPERATIVE. PRES. Fut. PRES. FUT. SG.cape capito, capere, capitor, capito, capitor, capite. capitote, capimini. capiunto. capiuntor. INFINITIVE PRES.capere. capi. PARTICIPLE. GERUND. GERUNDIVE. PRES.capiens. G.capiendi. capiendus,a,tun. [REGULAR VERBS.83] 127. Fourth Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF audire,to hear. PRIN.PARTS : audio,audire,audivi,auditum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. SG. audio, audiam, audior, audiar, audis, audias, audiris(audire), audiaris(audiare), audit, audiat, auditur, audiatur, PL. audimus, audiamus, audimur, audiamur, auditis, audiatis, audimini, audiamini, audiunt. audiant. audiuntur. audiantur. IMPERFECT. SG. audiebam, audirem, audiebar, audirer, audiebas, audires, audiebaris(audiebare), audireris(audirere), audiebat, audiret, audiebatur, audiretur, PL. audiebamus, audiremus, audiebamur, audiremur, audiebatis, audiretis, audiobamini, audiremini, audiebant. audirent. audiebantur. audirentur. FUTURE. SG. audiam, audiar, audies, audieris(audiere), audiet, audietur, PL. audiemus, audiemur, audietis, audiemini, audient. audientur. PERFECT. SG. audivi, audiverim, auditus sum, auditus sim, audivisti, audiveris, es, sis, audivit, audiverit, est, sit, PL. audivimus, audiverimus, auditi sumus, auditi simus; audivistis, audiveritis, estis, sitis, audiverunt(audivere),audiverint. sunt. sint. [84 REGULAR VERBS.] Fourth Conjugation. ACTIVE.PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. SG. audiveram, audivissem, auditus eram, auditus essem, audiveras, audivisses, eras, esses, audiverat, audivisset, erat, esset, PL. audiveramus, audivissemus, auditi eramus,auditi essemus audiveratis, audivissetis, eratis, essetis, audiverant, audivissent, erant, essent. FUTURE PERPECT. SG. audivero, auditus ero, audiveris, eris, audiverit, erit, PL. audiverimus, auditi erimus, audiveritis, eritis, audiverint. erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. audi, audito, audire, auditor, audito, auditor, PL. audite.; auditote, audimini. audiunto, audiuntor. INFINITIVE. PRES.audire. PRES.audiri. PERF.audivisse. PERF.auditum,am,um esse. Fut.auditurum,am,um esse FUT.auditum iri. FUT.PF.auditum,am,um fore. GERUND. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. N.[audire]. PRES. N.audiens,G.audientis G.audiendi. FUT. auditurus,a,um. D.audiendo. PERF. auditus,a,um. Ac.[audire] Ac.auditum. (ad) audiendum. Ab.audiendo. Ab.auditu. GERUNDIVE, audiendus,a,um. [DEPONENT VERBS.85] DEPONENT VERBS. 128.Deponent verbs have the passive form,but are active in meaning.They have also the Present and Future Active Participles,and the Future Active Infinitive.Thus a deponent verb alone can have a Present,Future,and Perfect Participle,all with active meaning.The Gerundive,however,is passive in meaning as well as in form. The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the regular conjugation. 1.First Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF hortari,to exhort. PRIN.PARTS: hortor,hortari,hortatus sum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Exhort, Be exhorting,may exhort. SG. hortor, horter, hortaris(hortare), horteris(hortere), hortatur, hortetur, PL. hortamur, hortemur, hortamini, hortemini, hortantur. hortentur. IMPERFECT. Was exhorting. Were exhorting,might exhort. SG. hortabar, hortarer, hortabaris(hortabare), hortareris(hortarere), hortabatur, hortaretur, PL. hortabamur, hortaremur, hortabamini, hortaremini, hortabantur. hortarentur. FUTURE. Shall exhort. SG. hortabor, hortaberis(hortabere), hortabitur, PL. hortabimur, hortabimini, hortabuntur. [86 DEPONENT VERBS.] PERFECT. Have exhorted,exhorted. Have,may have,exhorted. SG.hortatus,a,um sum, hortatus,a,um sim, es, sis, est, sit, PL.hortati,ae,a sumus, hortati,ae,a simus, estis, sitis, sunt. sint. PLUPERFECT. Had exhorted. Had,might have,exhorted. SG.hortatus,a,um eram, hortatus,a,um essem, eras, esses, erat, esset, PL.hortati,ae,a eramus, hortati,ae,a essemus, eratis, essetis, erant. essent. FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have exhorted. SG.hortatus,a,um ero, eris, erit, PL.hortati,ae,a erimus, eritis, erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. hortare,exhort thou. hortator,thou shall exhort. hortator,he shall exhort. PL. hortamini,exhort ye. hortantor,they shall exhort. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES.hortari,to exhort. PRES.hortans,exhorting. FUT.hortaturum,am,um esse, FUT.hortaturus,a,um,about to be about to exhort. to exhort. PERF.hortatum,am,um esse,to PERF.hortatus,a,um,having have exhorted. exhorted. F.P.hortatum,am,um fore. GERUNDIVE. SUPINE. hortandus,a,um,[one] to be Ac.hortatum,to exhort,for ex- exhorted. horting. GERUND. Ab.hortatu,to exhort,in the ex- G.hortandi,of exhorting. horting. [DEPONENT VERBS.87] 2.Second,Third,Fourth Conjugations. SYNOPSIS OF vereri,to fear; loqui,to speak; mentiri,to lie. PRIN.PARTS : vereor,vereri,veritus sum; loquor,loqui,locutus sum; mentior,mentiri,mentitus sum. INDICATIVE. ii. iii. iv. PRES. vereor, loquor, mentior, vereris(verere), loqueris(loquere), mentiris(mentire), veretur loquitur mentitur veremur loquimur mentimur veremini loquimini mentimini verentur loquintur mentiuntur IMPERF. verebar, loquobar, mentiebar, FUT. verebor, loquar. mentiar, PERF. veritus sum, locutus sum, mentitus sum, PLUPF. veritus eram, locutus eram, mentitus eram, FUT.PP. veritus ero, locutus ero. mentitus ero, SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES. verear, loquar, mentiar, verearis(vereare), loquaris(loquare) mentiaris(mentiare) etc. etc. etc. IMPERF.vererer, loquerer, mentirer, PERF. veritus sim, locutus sim, mentitus sim, PLUPF. veritus essem. locutus essem. mentitus essem. IMPERATIVE. PRES. verere, loquere, mentire, FUT. veretor. loquitor. mentitor. INFINITIVE. PRES. vereri, loqui, mentiri, FUT. veriturum esse, locuturum esse, mentiturum esse, PERF. veritum esse, locutum esse, mentitum esse, FUT.PP. veritum fore. locutum fore. mentitum fore. PARTICIPLES. PRES. verens, loquens, mentiens, FUT. veriturus, locuturus, mentiturus, PERF veritus. locutus. mentitus. GERUND. verendi,etc., loquendi, mentiendi, GERUNDIVE,verendus, loquendus, mentiendus, SUPINE. veritum, locutum, mentitum, veritu. locutu. mentitu. [88 PEEIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION]. Periphrastic Conjugation. 129.The Periphrastic Conjugation arises from the combination of the Future Participle active and the Gerundive with forms of the verb sum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES.amaturus(a,um) sum, amaturus(a,um) sim, Am about to love. Be about to love. IMPF.amaturus eram, amaturus essem, Was about to love. Were about to love. FUT.amaturus ero, Shall be about to love. PERF.amaturus fui, amaturus fuerim, Have been,was,about to love. Have,may have,been about to love. PLUPF.amaturus fueram, amaturus fuissem, Had been about to love. Had,might have,been about to love. FUT.PERF.amaturus fuero, Shall have been about to love. INFINITIVE.PRES.amaturum(am,um) esse,To be about to love. PERF.amaturum fuisse,To have been about to love. PASSIVE. PRES.amandus(a,um) sum, amandus(a,um) sim, Have to be loved. Have to be loved. IMPF.amandus eram, amandus essem,forem, Had to be loved. Had to be loved. FUT.amandus ero, Shall have to be loved. PERF.amandus fui, amandus fuerim, Have had to be loved. Have had to be loved. PLUPF.amandus fueram, amandus fuissem, Had had to be loved. Should have had to be loved. INFINITIVE.PRES.amandum(am,um) esse, To have to be loved. PERF,amandum fuisse, To have had to be loved. [NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS.89] Notes on the Four Conjugations. 130.The Present System. 1.PRESENT INDICATIVE.(a) In the third person Singular active,early Latin,and occasionally later poets,often retain the original length of vowel in the endings -āt,-ēt, and -īt of the first,second,and fourth conjugations.Final -īt in the third conjugation is rare,and due,perhaps,to analogy or to metrical necessity.In the first person Plural the ending -mūs is found a few times in poetry.In third person Plural an earlier ending,-onti,is found only in a Carmen Saliare,and is disputed. The ending -ont is frequent in early Latin for -unt. (b) In the second Singular,passive,in all tenses of the Present stem,the ending -re is much more common in early Latin than -ris,and is regular in Cic.except in the Pr. Indic.,where he prefers -ris on account of confusion with Pr.Inf.,admitting -re only in deponents,and then but rarely.In general,in the Pr.Indic.-re is rare in the first and second conjugations,more rare in the third,and never found in the fourth,in prose authors.Post-Ciceronian prose writers,e.g.,LIVY,TACITUS,prefer -ris,even in the other tenses of the Present stem.The poets use -ris or -re to suit the metre. 2.IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. In the fourth conjugation,instead of ie,we find in early times i.This is common in early Latin(especially scibam),in the poets to suit the metre,and occasionally in later prose.In the verb eo,and its compounds(but ambire varies),this form was regular always. 3.FUTURE INDICATIVE. PLAUTUS shows sporadic cases of -it,as erit,venibit (veneo). In the fourth conjugation -ibo for -iam is very common in early Latin (especially scibo),and forms in -ibo of the third conjugation are occasional. 4.PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE. Final -at of the third person Singular active is occasional in early Latin and also in later poets. In early Latin the active endings -im,-is,-it,-int are found in dare(and some compounds), which forms very often duim,duis,duit,duint.(Ter.,And.666,Ph.519 perduint TER.,Ph.123) On similar forms from esse,see 116;from edere,see 172. 5.IMPERATIVE. (a) Four verbs, dicere,ducere,facere,ferre(171), form the Pr. Impv.active dic,duc,fac,fer. But in early Latin dice,duce,face are not uncommon. The compounds follow the usage of the simple verbs,except nonprepositional compounds of facio. Scire,to know, lacks the Pr.Impv.sci. (b) The original ending of the Fut.Impv.active -tod is found in early inscriptions, but very rarely. (c) The Pr.Impv.passive(second and third Singular) ends occasionally in early Latin in -mino. 6.PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE. The early ending -rier(-ier) is very common in early Latin and occasionally in poetry at all periods.PLAUTUS shows about 140 such formations.In literary prose it does not appear till very late. 7.The PRESENT PARTICIPLE occurs sporadically in early Latin with the ending -as,-es, the n having been omitted owing to its weak sound;see 12,R.1. 8.The older ending of the GERUND and GERUNDIVE in the third and fourth conjugations was -undus;and -endus was found only after u.In classical times -undus is frequent,especially in verbs of third and fourth conjugations.Later,-endus is the regular form. 131.The Perfect System. 1.SYNCOPATED FORMS.The Perfects in -avi,-evi,-ivi,often drop the v before s or r,and contract the vowels throughout,except those in ivi,which admit the contraction only before s. The syncopated forms are found in all periods,and in the poets are used to suit the metre. [90 NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS.] PERFECT. SING. 1. - - - - - - 2.amavisti,amasti. delevisti,delesti. audivisti,audisti. 3. PLUR. 1. 2.amavistis,amastis. delevistis,delestis. audivistis,audistis. 3.amaverunt,amarunt. deleverunt,delerunt. audiverunt,audierunt. SUBJY. amaverim,amarim, deleverim,delerim, audiverim,audierim, amaveris,amaris, deleveris,deleris, audiveris,audieris, amaverit,amarit, deleverit,delerit, audiverit,audierit, etc. etc. etc . PLUPERFECT. INDIC. amaveram,amaram, deleveram,deleram, audiveram,audieram, amaveras,amaras, deleveras,deleras, audiveras,audieras, amaverat,amarat, deleverat,delerat, audiverat,audierat, etc. etc. etc. SUBJV. amavissem,amassem, delevissem, delessem, audivissem,audissem, etc. etc. etc. FUTURE PERFECT. amavero,amaro, delevero,delero, audivero,audiero, amaveris,amaris deleveris, deleris audiveris,audieris amaverit.amarit deleverit, delerit audiverit,audierit amaverimus,amarimus amaveritis,amaritis amaverint,amarint etc. etc. etc. INFINITIVE PERFECT. amavisse,amasse. delevisse,delesse. audivisse,audisse. 2.In the first and third persons Sing,and in the first person PL of the Perfect,syncope occurs regularly only in Perfects in ivi,and no contraction ensues.It is most common in the Perfects of ire (169) and petere. In other verbs this syncopation is post-Ciceronian, except in a few forms.So CICERO uses dormiit, erudiit, expediit, molliit, cupiit(also PLAUTUS); CAESAR, communiit, resciit, quaesiit. Desinere forms desii and desiit, once each in early Latin(CICERO uses destiti and destitit instead),and then in post-Augustan Latin; desiimus is cited once from CICERO.The unsyncopated forms are always common except those of ire(169),which are very rare in classical prose,but occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons. NOTE.The forms nomus(ENN.= novimus), enarramus(TER.,Ad.,365), flemus, mutamus, and narramus(PROP.), suemus(LUCR.), in the Perfect,are sporadic and sometimes doubtful. 3. novi,I know, and movi,I have moved, are also contracted,in their compounds especially. SING.-2.nosti.PLUR.-2.nostis.3.norunt.SUBJV.norim,etc. PLUPF.noram,etc.SUBJV.nossem,etc.INF.nosse. But the Fut.Perf .noro is found only in compounds. Similar contractions are seen in movi, but not so often; iuvi shows also a few cases of syncope in poetry. 4.(a) In the early Latin poets frequently and occasionally in later,syncope takes place in Perfects in -si.These drop the s and contract.A few cases are found in CICERO,especially in the letters.Examples arc dixti (found also in Cic.and probably an earlier formation,and not by syncope for dixisti ); duxti ,principally in compounds; intellexti (once in Cic.TER.,And,509,et 3 times); scripsti ; misti (misisti) and several others;also scripstis. (b) Akin to these are a number of forms in -so for Fut.Perfect;-sim for Pf. Subjv.and more rarely -sem for Plupf .Subjv.These forms are most usual in the third conjugation,but are also not unfrequent in the other three;thus, [THE STEM.91] 1.Future Perfect : faxo(facere); capso(capere) and compounds; iusso(iubere; VERG.); amasso(amare); servasso(servare) and compounds,together with some others. 2.Perfect Subjunctive : faxim and compounds; duxim; ausim(audere,also used by Cic.); iussim; empsim (emere); locassim(locare); negassim(negare). In the second and third persons Sing.,where the Fut.Pf .Indic.and the Pf.Subjv.are identical,the forms are much more common.The plural forms are much less frequent. 3.Pluperfect Subjunctive : faxem; promissem; intellexes; recesset and a few other forms; erepsemus(HOR.,S.,1.5,79). These forms are rare. 4.Infinitive : dixe; despexe; adduxe,etc.; intellexe; detraxe,etc.; advexe; admisse,and a few others. Also the Future forms averuncassere, reconciliassere, impetrassere, oppugassere. The exact origin of these forms is still a matter of dispute,but the common view is that they are aoristic formations. 5.From the earliest times the third Plural of the Pf .Indic.active shows two endings,-eront(later ērunt) and -ere.The form in -erunt was always preferred,and in classical prose is the normal form.The form in -ere seems to have been the popular form,and is much liked by LIVY and later writers.TACITUS seems to have preferred -erunt for the Pure Perfect,and -ere for the Historical Perfect.The poets scan(韻律に合わせる),according to the exigencies of the metre,at all periods also erunt. 6.In regard to the other endings,we have to notice in early Latin -is occasionally in the Pf .Subjv.and Fut.Pf.Indic.active;Perfects in -ii are always written with -iei- on inscriptions;in other Perfects the third person Singular in -eit(older -ēt),or -īt; as dedet; occasionally the first person ends in ei and the second in istei.Peculiar forms are dedrot(dedro),(for dederunt),feced(for fecit),and a few others. THE STEM. 132.With the exception of the verbs sum,I am, edo,I eat, eo,I go, fero,I bear, volo,I wish (perhaps do,I give),and their compounds,most of whose forms come directly from the root, all verbs in Latin form their stems from the root by the addition of a vowel or of a combination of a vowel with a consonant.This vowel is called the thematic vowel;see 190. In the first,second,and fourth conjugations,and in some verbs of the third conjugation,the stem thus formed is found throughout the whole conjugation;in other verbs the present stem shows different forms from the other stems. 1.THE PRESENT STEM. 133.I.The,Stem or Thematic class : To this class belong those verbs whose stems are formed by the addition of a thematic vowel(usually i, sometimes u) to the root,as in the third conjugation,or to a stem formed by the addition of a,e,or i to the root,as in the first,second,and fourth conjugations.The stem thus formed is seen(with lengthened vowel sometimes) in all forms of the verb.To this class belong verbs of the first,second,and fourth conjugations,and in the third [92 THE STEM.] (a) verbs formed from a strong root,i.e.,verbs with ī,ū,ā,ē,ō, ae,au;and with e in the stem;as dico(= deico), duco(= douco), rado, cedo, rodo, caedo, plaudo; veho, vergo, pendo,etc.; (b) verbs formed from a weak root,i.e.,those with vowel i,u,o,and probably those with a: as divido, furo, olo(olere), ago. II.The Reduplicated class : The Present stem is formed by reduplication,with i in the reduplicated syllable : gen-,gigno(for GIGENO),gignere,to beget; sta-,sisto,sistere,to set,stand. Compare stare,to stand. Other forms,as sido(for SIS(E)DO), sero(for SISO), and perhaps bibo,have the Reduplication concealed. III.The T class : The root,which usually ends in a guttural,is strengthened by to,te : flecto(FLEC),flectere,to bend. IV.The Nasal class: In this class the root is strengthened by no,ne,the nasal being inserted A.In vowelstems : sino(SI-),sinere,to let; lino(LI-),linere,to besmear. B.After the characteristic liquid : cerno(CER),cernere,to sift, separate; temno(TEM),temnere,to scorn. NOTES.1.After l assimilation takes place : pello(for pelno),pellere,to drive. 2.In a few verbs the strengthened forms(-no after a vowel,-ino after a liquid) are confined mainly to the third person Plural active of the Present,and are found not later than the close of the sixth century of the city : danunt(= dant), explenunt (= explent), nequinont(= nequeunt),and a few others. C.Before the characteristic mute : vinco(vie),vincere,to conquer; frango(FRAG),frangere,to break; fundo(FUD),fundere,to pour. Before a p-mute n becomes m: rumpo(RUP),rumpere,to rend; combo(CUB),cumbere,to lie down. D.Here belong also those verbs in which the root is strengthened by -nuo,nue;as sternuo(STER),sternuere,to sneeze(くしゃみ). NOTE.In verbs like tinguo,I soak, the consonantal u disappears before a consonant in the Pf .and Supine : tinxi,tinctum. V.The Inchoative class : The Present stem has the suffix -sco,-sce. irascor,I am in a rage; cresco,I grow; obdormisco,I fall asleep; apiscor,I reach; proficiscor,I set out; nanciscor(NAC-),I get; nosco (= gnosco),I become acquainted; posco(= porcsco),I demand; misceo (= micsceo),I mix; disco(= didcsco),I learn. A number of Inchoatives are derivative formations from substantives;as, lapidesco(from lapis),I become stone. VI.The I class : Instead of the simple thematic vowel i the root is increased by the form ie.In some forms of the Present stem,i.e.,the Pr.Inf.,Impf.Subjv.,second Sing.,Pr.Impv.,this appears in the form e;in some other forms it appears as i : capio(CAP),capere,to take. [THE STEM.93] NOTE.Verbs of the fourth conjugation also belong to the i class;but for con venience the i class is here restricted as above. VII.The Mixed class : Some verbs that originally belong to the i-class have gone over in the Present stem to the forms of the stem class : as venio(VEN-),venire,to come; video(VID-),videre,to see; sono (SON-),sonare,to sound. II.THE PERFECT STEM. 134.I.Perfect in -vi(or -ui) : These are formed by the addition (a) Of -vi to the stem as it appears in the Present Inf.in combination with the thematic vowel.To this class belong the Perfects of the first and fourth conjugations,and the few verbs of the second conjugation mentioned in 124; amare,amavi; audire,audivi; delere,delevi. (b) Of -ui to the Present stem after its characteristic vowel is dropped.Here belong the majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; monere,monui. II.Perfect in -si: These are formed by the addition of -si to the root;which is,as a rule,long either by nature or position.This class comprises a large number of verbs in the third conjugation in which the stem-characteristic consonant is a mute;three in which it is -m ( premere,to press; sumere,to take; contem(n)ere,to scorn );and a few in which it is -s,as uro,I burn,ussi; haereo,I stick,liaesi(= haessi). Examples are repo,I creep,repsi; scribo,I write,scripsi; dico,I say, dixi(= dicsi); carpo,I pluck,carpsi; rado,I scrape,asi(= radsi). NOTE.But verbs in -ndo,take i in the Perfect : defendo,I strike(ward)off,defendi; perhaps because they formed originally a reduplicated perfect;as, mando,I chew,man(di)di; so (fe)fendi,I have struck. III.Reduplicated Perfects : These are formed by prefixing to the unstrengthened root its first consonant(or consonantal combination) together with the following vowel,a and ae being weakened to e,or,if the root began with a vowel,by prefixing e,and adding the termination i.In Latin but few of these forms remain,and they have been variously modified : disco,I learn,didici; spondeo,I pledge,spo(s)pondi; tango,I touch,tetigi; tundo,I strike,tutudi; ago,I act,egi (= eagi); emo,I buy,emi(= eemi). In composition the reduplication is in many cases dropped;so always in compounds of cadere,to fall; caedere,to fell; canere,to sing; fallere,to deceive; pangere,to fix; parcere,to spare; parere. to bear; pendere,to hang; pungere,to prick; tangere,to touch; tendere,to stretch(occasionally retained in late Latin); tondere,to shear(but occasionally retained in late Latin); tundere,to strike. Discere,to learn,always retains it,and so poscere,to demand, and admordere,to bite. Of compounds of currere,to run, succurrere always [94 THE STEM.] drops the reduplication, praecurrere always retains it : the others vary. Of compounds of dare, abscondere usually drops it,but all trisyllabic compounds that change the a,and all quadrisyllable compounds,retain it. Compounds of sistere,to set,and stare,to stand,retain it. IV.Perfect in ī. Verbs of the third conjugation,with a short stem syllable,take ī in the Perfect,after lengthening the stemsyllable and changing a into e.In many cases these Perfects are the remains of reduplicated forms : lego,I read,legi; video,I see,vidi; fodio,I stab,fodi; fugio,I flee,fugi; frango,I break,fregi. V.Denominative verbs in -uo,like acuo,I sharpen; metuo,I fear; also sternuo,I sneeze, form the Perfect in ui after the analogy of primary verbs,and the formation in ui gradually extended in Latin. III.THE SUPINE STEM. 135.1 Supine in tum,Perfect Passive Participle in tus: The stems are formed by the addition of tu or to (a) To the stem as it appears in the Present Infinitive active.Here belong most verbs of the first and fourth conjugations,and those verbs of the second conjugation that are mentioned in 124 : amatum, deletum, auditum. Those verbs of the second conjugation which form Perfect in ui,form the Supine stem by weakening the thematic vowel e to i,and adding tu,to,except censere,to deem, docere,to teach, miscere,to mix, tenere,to hold, torrere,to scorch, which omit the thematic vowel,and form censum, doctum, mixtum, (tentum), tostum. (b) To the unstrengthened stem.Here belong most verbs of the third conjugation and the five verbs of the second just given,with sporadic forms in the other conjugations : captum(capio,I take), reptum(repo,I creep), dictum(dico,I say), factum(facio,I do). In combinations of t-with a dental,assimilation took place,giving usually "ss" after a short vowel and s after a long vowel : scissum(scindo,I cleave), caesum(caedo,I fell). On the analogy of this and under the influence often of Perfect in si,we find -s- also in some other stems : 1.In stems with a guttural characteristic;as, fixum(figo,I fix); often with a preceding liquid : mersum(mergo,I dip;Pf .mersi); tersum(tergeo,I wipe; Pf .tersi); parsum (parco,I spare;Pf.parsi,old); sparsum(spargo,I sprinkle; Pf.sparsi); mulsum(mulgeo,1 milk;Pf.mulsi); but fartum(farcio,I stuff; Pf .farsi); tortum(torqueo,I twist;Pf .torsi); indultum(rare and postclassical,from indulgeo I indulge; Pf.indulsi). 2.In one with a labial characteristic : lapsum(labor,I slip). 3.In some stems with characteristic s;as, censum(censeo,I deem;see I.a.); haesum(haereo,I stick); pinsum(pinso,I pound). 4.In some stems with a nasal characteristic : pressum(premo,I press;Pf .pressi ); mansum (maneo,I remain;Pf.mansi). 5.In stems where ll,rr has arisen by assimilation : pulsum(pello,I drive); falsum(fallo,I falsify); vulsum (vello,I pluck); cursum(curro,I run); versum (verro,I sweep). [CHANGE OF CONJUGATION.95] II.FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE IN -turus.The same changes occur in the stem as are found in the case of the Supine. 1.In some stems ending in -u a thematic vowel i is inserted;as arguiturus(arguere,to prove); luiturus(luere,to loose); abnuiturus (abnuere,to deny); ruiturus(ruere,to rush); eruiturus(eruere,to root out); fruituras(frui,to enjoy). 2.Some Future Participles are found without corresponding Perfect : caliturus(calere,to be warm); cariturus(carere,to lack); doliturus (dolere,to grieve); iaciturus(iacere,to lie); pariturus(parere,to obey); valiturus(valere,to be well). 3.Irregular are : agnoturus,agniturus(agnoscere,to know well); disciturus(discere,to learn); hausurus,hausturus(haurire,to drain); nisurus(niti,to lean); moriturus(mori,to die); nosciturus(noscere,to know); oriturus(oriri,to arise); pariturus(parere,to bear). Change of Conjugation. 136.A change of Conjugation occurs in verbs which show a long thematic vowel in the Present stem,but not in the Perfect stem,or the reverse. 1.Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed regularly,according to the third conjugation,have the Present stem formed according to one of the other three : augeo, augere, auxi, auctum, to increase. sentio, sentire, sensi, sensum, to feel. saepio, saepire, saepsi, saeptum, to hedge about. venio, venire, veni, ventum, to come. video, videre, vidi, visum, to see. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, to bind. 2.Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed according to the first,second,or fourth conjugations,have the Present stem formed according to the third,in consequence of strengthening : sterno, sternere, stravi, stratum, to strew. cresco, crescere, crevi, cretum, to grow. lino, linere, levi(livi), litum, to smear. 3.Verbs with the Present formed regularly according to the third conjugation, have the Perfect and Supine formed according to(a) the second,or(b) the fourth conjugation : (a) accumbere,to recline, fremere,to rage, gemere,to groan, gignere,to beget, molere,to grind, strepere,to resound, vomere,to vomit, form Perfect in ui,Supine in itum. alere,to nourish, colere,to cultivate, consulere,to consult, frendere,to show the teeth, occulere,to conceal, rapere,to snatch, and its compounds form Perfect in -ui,Supine in -tum(-sum),For alitus,see 142,3 . [96 LIST OF VERBS] compescere,to check, concinere,to sing together, and other compounds of canere,to sing, excellere,to excel, stertere,to snore, tremere,to tremble, form Perfect in ui,but no Supine. (b) arcessere,to summon, incessere,to enter, cupere,to desire, petere,to seek, quaerere,to search, and its compounds, rudere,to roar, sapere,to savor, form Perfect in ivi,Supine in itum. 4.Stems vary among the first,second,and fourth conjugations. (a) Verbs with the Present formed according to the first,and Perfect and Supine according to the second conjugation crepare,to crackle, cubare,to lie, domare,to conquer, micare,to flash, plicare,to fold, sonare,to sound, tonare,to thunder, vetare,to forbid, with Perfect in ui,Supine in itum : fricare,to rub, necare,to kill, secare,to cut, with Perfect in ui,Supine in tum(but participles in atus are occasional,principally in later Latin). (b) Verbs with Present formed according to fourth,and Perfect and Supine according to the second : amicire,to wrap, aperire,to open, operire,to cover, salire,to leap, and compounds. (c) Of the second and fourth conjugations is cieo(cio), ciere(cire), civi, citum(citum), to stir up, and its compounds;while poto,potare,to drink,forms Sup.potum or potatum,and Fut.Part,poturus or potaturus. 5.dare,to give,and stare,to stand,pass over to the third conjugation in the Perfect,in consequence of reduplication. LIST OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. PERFECT : vi;SUPINE : tum. 137.Stem class : (a) Verbs of first and fourth conjugations,except those mentioned in 136,4.Irregular in Supine is sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, sepultum, to bury. (b) In the second conjugation : deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to destroy. fleo, flere, flevi, fletum, to weep. neo, nere, nevi, netum, to spin. oleo(ab,in), olere, olevi, to grow. These compounds form Supine in itum;abolitum,inolitus. -pleo, -plere, -plevi, -pletum, to fill. So the compounds with com,in,ex,re,sup. vieo, viere, vietus, to plait. Irregular is cieo(cio), ciere(cire),civi, citum(citum),to stir up. In the compounds we find the Participles concitus or concitus,percitus,excitus or excitus,but accitus. [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.97] (c) In the third conjugation : arcesso, arcessere, arcessivi, arcessitum, to send for. So,too,lacesso,I tease,capesso,I lay hold of. In early Latin we often find accerso,the relation of which to arcesso is variously explained.The forms arcessiri and later arcessiretur,from the fourth conjugation,also occur. incesso, incessere, incessivi(cessi), to attack. So facesso,I cause,make off. peto, petere, petivi, petitum, to seek(fly at). quaero, quaerere, quaesivi, quaesitum, to seek. conquiro, conquirere, conquisivi, conquisitum, to hunt up. So other compounds of quiro(quaero). rudo, rudere, rudivi, ruditum, to roar. tero, terere, trivi, tritum, to rub. TIB.,1.4,48,has atteruisse,.aud APULEIUS has similar forms. 138.Reduplicated class : sero, serere, sevi, setum, to sow. So consero,but with Sup.consitum. 139.Nasal class: A.lino, linere, levi, litum, to besmear. So compounds of lino.Pf livi is rare. sino, sinere, sivi, situm, to let. So desino,I leave off,and in early Latin,pono(= posino),I put. B.cerno, cernere, crevi, (cretum), to separate. So decerno,I decide. sperno, spernere, sprevi, spretum, to despise. sterno, sternere, stravi, stratum, to strew. 140.Inchoative class : inveterasco,inveterascere,inveteravi,inveteratum,to grow old. pasco, pascere, pavi, pastum, to graze(trans.). vesperasco,vesperascere, vesperavi, to become evening. So advesperasco. cresco, crescere, crevi, cretum, to grow. So the compounds. concupisco, cupiscere, cupivi, cupitum, to long for. obdormisco, dormiscere, dormivi, dormitum, to fall asleep. So condormisco,edormisco. exolesco, olescere, olevi, oletum, to get one's growth. So obsolesco,I grow old.But abolesco,I disappear,has abolitum;coalesco, I grow together,coalitum; adolesco,I grow up,adultum in the Sup.; and inolesco lacks the Supine. quiesco, quiescere, quievi, quietum, to rest. scisco, sciscere, scivi, scitum, to decree, So adscisco,I take on. [98 LIST OF VERBS] suesco, suescere, suevi, suetum, to accustom one's self, So compounds as,con,de,man. (g)nosco, noscere, novi, (notum), to know. So ignosco,I pardon;but cognosco,I recognise,and other compounds of nosco, have Sup.in itum. resipisco, sipiscere, sipivi, to come to one's senses. 141.1-class: cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupitum, to desire. sapio, sapere, sapivi(ui) to have a flavor. PERFECT : ui;SUPINE :(i)tum. 142.Stem class : 1.The majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; see 134,1,b, and 135,a.But sorbeo, sorbere, sorbui, to sup up. Pf .sorpsi occurs in VAL.MAX.and LUCAN. 2.Of the first conjugation : crepo, crepare, crepui, crepitum, to rattle. So the compounds,but in early and late Latin the regular fornig of discreparo and increpare are occasional. cubo, cubare, cubui, cubitum, to lie. Occasional regular forms in postCiceronian Latin. domo, domare, domui, domitum, to tame. frico, fricare, fricui, frictum(atum), to rub. Occasionally in early and more often in postclassical Latin,the regular forms are found in the compounds;so always fricaturus. mico, micare, micui, to quiver,flash, But dimicare,to fight(out),is regular,except occasionally in OVID. neco, necare, necavi(necui rare),necatum, to kill. The compound enecare,to kill off,has enecavi in early Latin,otherwise enecui (rare);and enectus(but PLIN.MAI.,enecatus). plico, plicare, (plicavi), plicitum, to fold. The simple forms of plicare are rare.The compounds ap,com,ex,im,vary between avi and ui in the Pf.,and atum and itum in the Sup.; but CICERO uses always applicavi,application; complicavi,complicatom; and usually expli cavi,always explicatum; always implicatum;circiimplicare is always regular; forms of replicare are rare. seco, secare, secui, sectum, to cut. Regular forms are early,late,and rare. sono, sonare, sonui, sonitum, to sound. But regularly sonaturus. Regular forms are late.In early Latin the forms sonere, sonit,sonunt,resonit,resonunt,show that the simple verb was sonere. tono, tonare, tonui, to thunder. But attonitus aud intonatus(Hor.,Epod.2,51). [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.99] veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum, to forbid. But PERSIUS(5,90) uses vetavi. 3.Of the third conjugation : fremo, fremere, fremui, to roar,rage. gemo, gemere, gemui, to groan. vomo, vomere, vomui, vomitum, to vomit. alo, alere, alui, altum, to nourish. Participle alitus occurs from LIVY on. colo, colere, colui, cultum, to cultivate. concino, cinere, cinui, to sing together. So occinere,praecinere. consuio, consulere, consuiui, consuitum, to consult. depso, depsere, depsui, depstus, to knead. molo, molere, molui, molitum, to grind. occulo, occulere, occului, occultum, to conceal. pinso, pinsere, pinsui, pinsitum, to pound. Sup.also pinsum,pistum.Collateral forms of piso,pisere,are early and rare; so also is pinsibant. sero, serere, (sertum), to string(out). Common in compounds : as,desero,deserere,deserui,desertum,to desert. The same forms are found occasionally in compounds of serere,to sow(138),but not in classical Latin. sterto, stertere, stertui, to snore. strepo, strepere, strepui, (strepitum), to make a din. texo, texere, texui, textum, to weave. Irregular are meto, metere, messui, messum, to mow. volo, velle, volui, to wish. So no1o,malo;see 174. 4.In the fourth conjugation : amicio, amicire, amicui(amixi), amictum, to clothe, aperio, aperire, aperui, apertum, to open, operio, operire, operui, opertum, to cover up. salio, salire, salui, saltum, to leap. The regular Perfects salivi,salii,are found in compounds,but usually in post classical writers,and often syncopated. 143.Reduplicated class : gigno(GEN), gignere, genui, genitum, to beget. Early Latin has the Present forms genit,genunt,genat,genitur,genuntur, genendi,geni. [100 LIST OF VERBS] 144.Nasal class : frendo, frendere, fresum, fressum, to gnash. Also in the form frendeo,frendere. accumbo, cumbere, cubui, cubitum, to lie down. So also the compounds con,dis,in;but recumbo lacks the Supine. excello, cellere, (cellui), (celsus) to surpass. But percellere,to beat down,has Pf .perculi,Sup.perculsum.Excelluerunt is found in GELL.xiv.3,7,and in AUGUSTINE;otherwise forms of Pf.and Sup.do not occur. 145.The Inchoative class : dispesco, dispescere, dispescui, to let loose. So compescere,to check. A large number of verbs are formed from verbs of the second con jugation,or from substantives or adjectives,and take Pf.in ui; as, coalesco, alescere, alui, alitum, to grow together. See 140. evanesco, vanescere, vanui, to disappear, convalesco, valescere, valui, valitum, to get well, ingemisco, gemiscere, gemui, to sigh . notesco, notescere, notui, to become known, incalesco, incalescere, incalui. to get warm. 146.The I-class : rapio, rapere, rapui, raptum, to snatch, corripio, ripere, ripui, reptum, to seize. So other compounds.In early Latin,surripere syncopates some of its forms,as surpuit,surpere;surpuerat occurs in HOR.; aoristic forms,as rapsit,surrepsit, belong also to the early period.131,4,b.2. PERFECT: si; SUPINE: tum,sum. 147.Stem class : 1.In the second conjugation : iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum, to order. On sorbeo see 142,1. ardeo, ardere, arsi, arsum, to be on fire, rideo, ridere, risi, risum, to laugh(at), haereo, haerere, haesi, (haesum ) , to stick(to), maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, to remain, suadeo, suadere, suasi, suasum, to counsel. With dental dropped before ending of Pf .and Supine. augeo, augere, auxi, auctum, to cause to wax frigeo, frigere, (frixi), to be chilled, luceo. lucere, luxi, to give light. [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.101] lugeo, lugere, luxi, to be in mourning. algeo, algere, alsi, to freeze. fulgeo, fulgere, fulsi, to glow. In early Latin,forms of the third conjugation occur : fulgit,fulgere,effulgere (VERG.,A,viii.677). indulgeo, indulgere, indulsi, (indultum), to give way. mulceo, mulcere, mulsi, mulsum to stroke. Rarely mulctus in compounds. mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi, mulsum(ctum) to milk tergeo, tergere, tersi, tersum, to wipe. Forms of the third conjugation : tergit,tergitur,terguntur,are occasionally found;and so too in some late compounds.VARRO has tertus. torqueo, torquere, torsi, tortum, to twist turgeo, turgere, tursi, to swell, urgeo, urgere, ursi, to press, coniveo(gnigv),nivere, nixi(ivi), to close the eyes. 2.In the third conjugation : carpo, carpere, carpsi, carptum, to pluck, decerpo,decerpere, decerpsi, decerptum, to pluck off. clepo, clepere, clepsi(clepi),cleptum, to filch. Rare and anteclassic. nubo, nubere, nupsi, nuptum, to put on a veil (as a bride). repo, repere, repsi, reptum, to creep. scalpo, scalpere, scalpsi, scalptum, to scrape. scribo, scribere, scripsi, scriptum, to write. sculpo, sculpere, sculpsi, sculptum, to chisel. serpo, serpere, serpsi, serptum, to creep. premo(primo),premere, pressi, pressum, to press. Some compounds of emo,I take,buy,have Pf.in si,Sup.in tum, before which a euphonic p developes : como, comere, compsi, comptum, to adorn, demo, demere, dempsi, demptum, to take away, promo, promere, prompsi, promptum, to take out. sumo, sumere, sumpsi, sumptum, to take. On contemno see 149,c. dico dicere dixi (dicsi),dictum, to say. Impv.dic,see 130,5.Occasionally in old Latin dicebo for Future. duco, ducere, duxi, ductum, to lead Imperative duc,see 130,5. figo, figere, fixi, fixum, to fasten Part.fictus for fixus is occasional in early Latin. -fligo(con,af,in),-fligere,-flixi, -flictum, to strike Simple verb is found occasionally in early Latin. frigo, frigere, frixi, flictum, to parch [102 LIST OF VERBS] sugo, sugere, suxi, suctum, to suck. Fut.exsugebo is found in PLAUT.,Ep.188. mergo, mergere, mersi, mersum, to plunge. spargo, spargere, sparsi, sparsum, to strew, conspergo,conspergere,conspersi,conspersum,to besprinkle. coquo, coquere, coxi, coctum, to cook. [-ligo (leg),-ligere, -lexi, -lectum.] diligo, diligere, dilexi, dilectum, to love. intelligo,or intellego,intellegere,intellexi, intellectum,to understand. negligo,or neglego, neglegere, neglexi, neglectum, to neglect. Other compounds have legi.SALL.,J.40,1,has neglegisset. rego, regere, rexi, rectum, to keep right, dirigo, dirigere, direxi, directum, to guide, pergo, pergere, perrexi, perrectum, to go on. surgo, surgere, surrexi, surrectum, to rise up. But expergo formed expergitus in eary and late Latin. tego, tegere, texi, tectum, to cover. claudo, claudere, clausi, clausum, to shut. con,excludo,excludere, exclusi, exclusum, to shut up,out. Early Latin shows also cludo,cludere. laedo, laedere, laesi, laesum, to harm. collido, collidere, collisi, colllsum, to strike together, ludo, ludere, lusi, lusum, to play. plaudo( applaudo),plaudere, plausi, plausum, to clap, explodo, explodere, explosi, explosum, to hoot off. rado, radere, rasi, rasum, to scratch. rodo, rodere, rosi, rosum, to gnaw. trudo, trudere, trusi, trusum, to push. vado(in,e), vadere, vasi, vasum, to go. cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum, to give way, quatio, quatere, (quassi), quassum to shake. concutio(per,ex),concutere, concussi, concussum, to shatter. mitto, mittere, misi, missum, to send. divido, dividere, divisi, divisum, to part. uro, urere, ussi, ustum, to burn. comburo, comburere, combussi, combustum, to burn up. gero, gerere, gessi, gestum, to carry, fluo(flugv), fluere, fluxi, (fluxus), to flow, struo(strugv), struere, struxi, structum, to build, traho(tragh), trahere, traxi, tractum, to drag. veho(vegh), vehere, vexi, vectum, to carry. vivo(vigv), vivere, vixi, victum, to live, [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.103] 148.The T-class: flecto, flectere, flexi, flexum, to bend. necto, nectere, nexi(nexui),nexum, to knot. The Pf .forms : innexui(VERG.,A.v.,435). pecto, pectere, pexi, pexum, to comb. plecto, plectere, (plexi), plexum, to plait. 149.The Nasal class : (a) Supine without N : fingo, fingere, finxi, fictum, to form. mingo, mingere, minxi, mictum, to urinate. pingo, pingere, pinxi, pictum, to paint. stringo, stringere, strinxi, strictum, to draw tight. (b) Supine with N : ango, angere, anxi, to throttle,vex. cingo, cingere, cinxi, cinetum, to gird. emungo, emungere, emunxi, emunctum, to wipe the nose. iungo, iungere, iunxi, iunctum, to yoke,join. lingo, lingere, linxi, linctum, to lick. ningo, ningere, ninxi, to snow. pango, pangere, panxi, panctum, to drive in. Perfect also pegi,and Supine pactum.Compare 155 and paciscor,165. plango, plangere, planxi, planetum, to smite. -stinguo, -stinguere, -stinxi, -stinctum, to put out. So the compounds ex,dis,re;the simple verb is anteclassic. tingo(tinguo),ting(u)ere,tinxi, tinctum, to wet,dye. ungo(unguo),ung(u)ere, unxi, unctum, to anoint. (c) temno(rare) and its compounds form the Pf.with a euphonic p: contemno, temnere, tempsi, temptum, to despise. 150.The I-class : 1.In the third conjugation : [-licio(LAC), -licere, -lexi, -lectum], to lure. pellicio, pellicere, pellexi,pellectum, to allure. So allicere,illicere,which,however,have early Pf.in ui,as does pellicere also. But elicere has -ui regularly in classical times,and elexi only later. [-spicio(SPEC),-spicere, -spexi, -spectum, to peer. perspicio, perspicere, perspexi,perspectum, to see through. So the compounds with ad-,con-,de-,in- [104 LIST OF VERBS] 2.In the fourth conjugation : saepio, saepire, saepsi, saeptum, to hedge in. sancio, sancire, sanxi, sanctum. to hallow. The Sup.sancitum is rare. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, to bind. farcio(fercio) farcire, farsi, fartum, to stuff. fulcio, fulcire, fulsi, fultum, to prop. sarcio, sarcire, sarsi, sartum, to patch. sentio, sentire, sensi. sensum, to feel. haurio, haurire, hausi, haustum, to drain. VERG.,A.iv.,383,has hausurus.Early Latin shows hauribant(Lucr.) and haurierint;hauriturus is very late. raucio, raucire, rausi, rausum to be hoarse. This verb is very rare. PERFECT : i WITH REDUPLICATION;SUPINE : sum,tum. 151,In the first conjugation : 1.do, dare, dedi, datum, to give,put,do. Everywhere a,except in das,thou givest,and da,give thou. 1.Like do,are conjugated the compounds with dissyllabic words,such as : circumdo,I surround; satisdo,I give bail; pessumdo,I ruin; venumdo,I sell; thus : circumdo,circumdare,circumdedi,circumdatum,to surround. 2.The compounds of dare with monosyllabic words pass over wholly into the Third Conjugation. abdo, abdere, abdidi, abditum, to put away. addo, addere, addidi, additum, to put to. condo, condere, condidi,conditum, to put up(found). abscondo, abscondere, abscondi,absconditum, to put far away. Pf.abscondidi is found in PL.,Mer.360,then not until late Latin. credo, credere, credidi,creditum, to put faith. dedo, dedere, dedidi, deditum, to give up. edo, edere, edidi, editum, to put out. indo, indere, indidi, inditum, to put in. perdo, perdere, perdidi,perditum, to fordo(ruin). prodo, prodere, prodidi,proditum, to betray. reddo, reddere, reddidi,redditum, to give back. trado, tradere, tradidi,traditum, to give over. vendo, vendere, vendidi,venditum, to put up to sale. NOTE.In early Latin dare formed the Pr.Subjv.,also duim.So in some of ita compounds,as perduim.See 130,4. 2.sto, stare, steti, (staturus), to stand. So the compounds : adsto, adstare, adstiti, to stand by. consto, constare, constiti, to stand fast. [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.105] insto, instare, institi, to stand upon. obsto, obstare, obstiti, to stand out against. persto, perstare, perstiti, to stand finn. praesto, praestare, praestiti, to stand ahead. resto, restare, restiti, to stand over. disto, distare, to stand apart. exsto, exstare, to stand out. All compounds of stare with dissyllabic prepositions have,however,steti in the Perfect,as : antesto,I am superior;intersto,I am between;supersto,I stand upon;thus : circumsto,circumstare,circumsteti, to stand round. NOTE.Compare sisto and its compounds;154,1. 152.In the second conjugation : mordeo, mordere,momordi,morsum,to bite. pendeo, pendere,pependi,to hang(intr.). spondeo, spondere,spopondi,sponsum,to pledge oneself '. Compounds omit the reduplication,but PLAUT.shows also despopondisse and despoponderas. tondeo, tondere,totondi,tonsum,to shear. 153.In the third conjugation : (a) Stem class. Reduplication lost in the compounds : cado,cadere,cecidi,casum,to fall. occido,occidere,occidi,occasum,to perish. recidere sometimes forms reccidi,as well as recidi,in the Perfect. caedo,caedere,cecidi,caesum,to fell. occido,occidere,occidi,occisum,to kill. cano,canere,cecini,(cantum),to sing. Compounds form the Pf .in ui.For(cantum),cantatum was used. parco,parcere,peperci(parsi),(parsurus),to spare. comparco(perco),comparcere,comparsi,comparsum,to save. parsi is common in early Latin,and is the only form used by PLAUTUS.Early Latin shows rarely parcui.TER.uses compersit. 154.(b) Reduplicated class : 1.sisto(=sisto),as a simple verb,has the transitive meaning, I(cause to) stand,but in its compounds,the intransitive meaning,I stand.Compare sto,I stand,and its compounds(151) : sisto,sistere,(stiti),statum,to(cause to) stand. So the compounds : consisto,consistere,constiti,constitum,to come to a stand, desisto(ab),desistere,destiti,destitum,to stand off. [106 LIST OF VERBS] exsisto,exsistere,exstiti,exstitum,to stand up. obsisto,obsistere,obstiti,obstitum,to take a stand against. resisto,resistere,restiti,restitum,to withstand. adsisto,adsistere,adstiti,to stand near. insisto,insistere,institi,to stand upon. circumsisto,circumsistere,circumsteti, to take a stand round. 2.bibo,bibere,bibi,(bibitus),to drink. No Supine.The Pf.Part,is late. 155.(c) Nasal class: fallo,fallere,fefelli,falsum, to cheat. The compound refello has the Perfect refelli,and lacks Supine. pello,pellere,pepuli,pulsum,to push,drive back. repello loses the reduplicating vowel in Pf .reppull. tollo,tollere, to lift up. Pf.and Sup.are formed sustuli(from reduplicated Pf.tetuli,171,N.1) and sub latum(for t'latum);a recent view makes sustuli from(s)tolle. (pango),(pangere),pepigi,pactum,to drive a bargain. The Pr.forms are supplied by paciscor,165.The Pf .pegi,rare in the simple form,is regular in the compounds com,im,op.See 149,b. tango(TAG),tangere,tetigi,tactum,to touch. attingo,attingere,attigi,attactum,to border upon. So with other compounds. pendo,pendere,pependi,pensum,to hang(trans.). tendo,tendere,tetendi,tensum and tum,to stretch. extendo,extendere, extendi,extensum and tum,to stretch out. ostendo,ostendere,ostendi,ostensum(tus),to stretch at,show. The compounds prefer the Sup.in tum; so always attentus,contentus,usually distentus and intentus. pungo,pungere,pupugi,punctum,to prick(刺す). interpungo,interpungere,interpunxi,interpunctum,to place points between. tundo,tundere,tutudi,tunsum,tusum,to thump. Simple form has usually tunsus in the Participle;in the compounds more often tusus.The reduplicating vowel is lost in rettudi. curro,currere,cucurri,cursum,to run. The compounds vary in their use of the reduplication;praecurrere always has the reduplication,succurrere always omits it;other compounds vary.See 134,iii. 156.(d)Inchoative class : disco(= did(e)csco),discere,didici,to learn. A late form is Fut.Part,discitttrus.Compounds retain reduplication.See 134,in. posco(= porcsco),poscere,poposci to claim. Compounds retain the reduplication.See 134,iii. 157.(e) The I-class: pario,parere,peperi,partum(pariturus),to bring forth, The compounds drop the reduplication and form the Inf.in ire.But reperire, to find,forms its Pf.,repperi,with omission of the vowel of reduplication. [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.107] PERFECT: i; SUPINE: tum,sum. 158.In the first conjugation : iuvo,iuvare,iuvi,iutum(iuvaturus),to help. adiuvo,iuvare,iuvi,iutum(iuturus),to standby as aid. (lavo),(lavere),lavi,lautum(lotum),to wash. lavo,lavare,(lavavi),lavatum,to wash. The Present forms of lavere belong principally to early Latin,with occasional forms in Augustan poets and late writers;lautum and lotum are both used in class ical times;but lautum belongs rather to early,lotum to postclassical Latin.The form lavatum is early and poetical. 159.In the second conjugation : caveo,cavere,cavi,cautum,to take heed. faveo,favere,favi,fautum,to be welldisposed, ferveo(o),fervere(ere),fervi(ferbui),to seethe. The Pr.forms of the third conjugation belong to early Latin and the poets.The Pf .in ui is post-Ciceronian. foveo,fovere,fovi,fotum,to keep warm. moveo,movere,movi,motum,to move. paveo,pavere,pavi,to quake(with fear). prandeo,prandere,prandi,pransum,to breakfast. sedeo,sedere,sedi,sessum,to sit. strideo(de),stridgre(ere),stridi, to whistle,screech. voveo,vovere,vovi,votum,to vow. The Present forms of the third conjugation belong almost entirely to Augustan poets and later writers. video,videre,vidi,visum,to see. 160.In the third conjugation : With long vowel in the Perfect. 1.The Stem,class: ago,agere,agi,actum,to do,drive.  cogo,cogere,coegi,coactum,to compel.  dego,degere, to pass(time).  redigo,redigere,redigi,redactum,to bring back. emo, emere,emi,emptum,to take,to buy.  interimo, imere, emi, -emptum,to make away with.  coemo,I buy up,is conjugated like emo.But the compounds with ad-,ex-, inter-,red-,take -imo.So,too,dirimo,I sever(裂く). edo,edere,edi,esum,to eat. NOTE.In agere,edere,emere,the reduplication has coalesced with the root;as, egi = eagi. cudo,cudere,(cudi),(cusum),to hammer. The Pf.and Sup.occur in compounds only. [108 LIST OF VERBS] lego,legere,legi,lectrun,to pick up,read. colligo,colligere,collegi,collectum.to gather. So the other compounds,except diligo,intellego,neglego,see 147,2. ico(defective),icere,ici,ictum,to strike. Present stem rare : icit,icitur,icimur. sido,sidere,sidi,to sit down. The Pf.was originally reduplicated as the Present;see 133,ii.In composition the Pf.is sedi,sessum,from sedeo,thus : consido,considere,consedi,consessum,to settle down. scabo,scabere,scabi,to scratch. solvo,solvere,solvi,solutum,to loose,pay. verto,vertere,verti,versum,to turn. revertor,reverti,reverti(active),reversum,to turn back. verro,verrere,verri(rare),versum,to sweep. viso,visere,visi, to visit. volvo,volvere,volvo,volutum,to roll. On percello,perculi,see 144.On tollo,sustuli,see 155. 2.The Nasal class : psallo,psallere,psalli,to play on the cithern. sallo,sallere,(salli), salsum,to salt. Very rare except in the past participle salsus. to pluck. vello,vellere,velli(vulsi),vulsum, The Pf .vulsi is postAugustan. lambo,lambere,lambi,to lick. rumpo,rumpere,rupi,ruptum,to break. accendo,accendere,accendi,accensum,to kindle. defendo,defendere,defendi,defensum, to strike away,defend, fundo(FUD),fundere,fudi,fusum,to pour. mando,mandere,mandi,mansum,to chew. pando,pandere,pandi,passum,to spread out. pansum in Supine is late. prehendo,prehendere,prehendi,prehensum,to seize. Often shortened to prendo,prendere,prendi,prensum. scando,scandere,scandi,scansum,to climb, a(d),descendo,descendere,descendi.descensum,to climb up,down. frango,frangere,fregi,fractum, to break, perfringo,perfringere,perfregi,perfractum,to shiver. linquo,linquere,liqui,to leave, relinquo,relinquere,reliqui,relictum,to leave behind. (pango),(pangere),(pegi) (pactum),to drive in. compingo,compingere,compegi.compactum,to drive tight. See 149,b,155. vinco(vic),vincere,vici,victum,to conquer. [ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM.109] 3.The I-class. (a) With long vowel in the Perfect. capio(cap),capere,cepi,captum,to take. accipio,accipere,accepi,acceptum,to receive. facio,facere,feci,factum,to make. calefacio(calf.),calefacere,calefeci,calefactum,to make warm. perficio,perficere,'perfeci,perfectum,to achieve. The Pf.was originally reduplicated;on Impv.fac,see 130,5. fodio,fodere,fodi,fossum,to dig. fugio,fugere,fugi,(fugiturus),to flee. iacio,iacere,ieci,iactum,to cast. conicio,conicere,conieci,coniectum,to gather. (b) With short vowel in the Pf.due to the loss of the reduplication : findo,findere,fidi,fissum,to cleave. scindo,scindere,scidi,scissum,to split. The reduplicated form scicidi is found in early Latin. 161.In the fourth conjugation : amicio forms rarely in late Latin amici;see 142,4. comperio,comperire,comperi,compertum,to find out. reperio,reperlre,repperi,repertum,to find. See the simple verb parere,157. venio,venire,veni,venitum,to come. In early Latin sporadic tenses from a form venere occur,as advenat,evenat. 162.A number of verbs of the third conjugation have a characteristic -u;these form the perfect in -i. abluo,abluere,ablui,ablutum,to wash off. abnuo,abnuere,abnui,(abnuiturus),to dissent. acuo,acuere,acui,acutum,to sharpen. adnuo(annuo),adnuere,adnui,to nod assent. arguo,arguere,argui,argutum,to accuse. batuo,batuere,batui,to beat. congruo,congruere,congrui,to agree. delibuo,delibuere,delibui,delibiitum,to anoint. exuo,exuere,exui,exutum,to put off,doff. imbuo,imbuere,imbui,imbutum,to dip,dye. induo,induere,indui,indutum,to put on,don. luo,luere,lui,luiturus,to atone for. metuo,metuere,metui,to fear. minuo,minuere,minui,minutum,to lessen. pluo,pluere,pluit,pluvit,to rain. ruo,ruere,rui,rutum(ruiturus),to rush down. spuo,spuere,spui,sputum,to spew. statuo,statuere,statui,statutum,to settle. sternuo,sternuere,sternui,to sneeze. suo,suere,sui,sutum,to sew. tribuo,tribuere,tribui,tributum,to allot. [110 DEPONENTS.] DEPONENTS. 163.The majority of the deponent verbs belong to the first conju gation.In many instances they have parallel active forms in early or in late Latin.The principal verbs are as follows : In the first conjugation : adulor,adulari,aclulatus sum,to fawn upon. Occasionally active in anteclassical Latin(LUCR.v.,1070) and more often in later Latin. altercor,altercari,altercatus sum,to wrangle. In early Latin altercasti(TER.,And.653),altercas.Active forms more common in late Latin. arbitror,arbitrari,arbitratus sum,to think. PLAUT.uses this verb also as an active,but later this usage is rare. aucupor,aucupari,aucupatus sum,to try to catch. Active forms are common in early Latin. auguror,augurari,auguratus sum,to take the auguries. Active forms are early,legal,and late.Use as a passive is occasional in the clas sical period. auspicor,auspicari,auspicatus sum,to take the auspices. Active forms are early and late.Cic.and LIVY use the verb as a passive in a few instances. comitor,comitari,comitatus sum,to accompany. Poets(Ov.,PROP.,etc.) use the active forms frequently.The Perfect Part,comita tus is common as a passive,also in classical Latin. commentor,commentari,commentatus sum,to discuss. Cic.uses commentatus as a passive in Br.88,301,Fam.xvi.,26,1. conflictor,conflictari.conflictatus sum,to struggle. Occasionally found for conflictare.See TER.,And.,93. conspicor,conspicari,conspicatus sum,to descry. So despicor,suspicor.But a few forms are occasionally(usually in early Latin) used as passives,especially despicatus(PLAUT.,TER.),compared despicatissimus by Cic.(Sest.16,36,Verr.iii.,41,98).PLAUT.,Cas.394,suspices. contemplor,contemplari,contemplatus sum,to survey. The active forms are used frequently in early Latin(regularly by PLAUT.). copulor, copulari,copuletus sum,to join. So PLAUT.,Aid.116.Otherwise everywhere copulare. criminor,criminari,criminatus sum,to charge. PLAUT.uses criminaret,ENNIUS criminat. cunctor,cunctari,cunctatus sum,to delay. Active forms are occasional in early and late Latin. dignor,dignari,dignatus sum,to deem worthy. This verb is predominantly postclassical and poetical.The active forms are early and rare;perhaps once in CICERO. [DEPONENTS.111] fabricor,fabricari,fabricatus sum,to forge, The active forms belong to poetry aud to postAugustan prose. faeneror,faenerari,faeneratus sum,to lend on interest. Active forms occasional in early Latin and more frequent in late Latin. fluctuor,fluctuari,fluctuatus sum,to undulate. Active forms are rare in PLAUT.and in Cic.,but not uncommon later.The de ponent forms are post-Ciceronian. (for),fari,fatus sum,to speak. See 175,3. frustror,frustrari,frustratus sum,to deceive. Active forms rare,but at all periods. illacrimor,illacrimari,illacrimatus sum,to weep over. In Cic.and HOR.; otherwise active. interpretor,interpretari,interpretatus sum,to interpret. Cic.uses interpretatus occasionally as a passive;likewise LIVY and others. luctor,luctari,luctatus sum,to wrestle. PLAUT.,TER.,ENNIUS,VARHO show sporadic forms of the active. ludificor,ludificari,ludificatus sum,to make sport. Active frequent in PLAUT.,and occasionally later. medicor,medicari,medicatus sum,to heal. The active is once in PLAUT.,and frequent in poets and postAugustan prose. meditor,meditari,meditatus sum,to think over The form meditatUS is very commonly found as a passive. muneror,munerari,muneratus sum,to bestow. Active forms in early Latin and occasionally in Cic.and later. nutricor,nutricari,nutricatus sum,to suckle. Active forms in early Latin. odoror,odorari,odoratus sum,to smell. Active forms occasional at all periods. opinor,opinari,opinatus sum,to think. opino is frequent in early Latin,and opinatus as passive is common in CICERO. palpor,palpari,palpatus sum,to stroke. is occasional(principally in early Latin) for palpare. populor,populari,populatus sum,to ravage. Active forms in simple verb and compounds are early,poetical,and postclassic sciscitor,sciscitari,sciscitatus sum,to inquire. PLAUT.,Merc.389,sciscitaro(active). scrutor,scrutari,scrutatus sum,to search. PLAUT.,Aul.657,perscrutavl.The use as a passive occurs first in SENECA sector,sectari,sectatus sum,to pursue. Active forms and passive usages are early. stabulor,stabulari,stabulatus sum,to stable. Active forms begin with VERGIL. tutor,tutari,tutatus sum,to protect. Active forms and passive usages are early and rare. [112 DEPONENTS.] tumultuor,tumultuari,tumultuatus sum,to raise a riot. But PLAUTITS uses active forms;and passive uses are occasional later. vagor,vagari,vagatus sum,to wander. Active forms belong to early Latin. veneror,venerari,veneratus sum,to reverence. But PLAUT.uses venero,venerem;VERG.,HOR.,and later writers show passive uses. 164.In the second conjugation : fateor,fateri,fassus sum,to confess. confiteor,confiteri,confessus sum,to confess. Both fateor and confiteor are used occasionally as passives by Cic.and later. liceor,liceri,licitus sum,to bid(at a salt). mereor,mergri,meritus sum,to deserve. Especially in the phrases mereri bene de aliquo,to deserve well of any one. Otherwise the active is usual. misereor,misereri,miseritus sum,to pity. In early Latin the active forms are found occasionally,e.g.,LUCR,iii.,881. polliceor,polliceri,pollicitus sum,to promise. Occasionally used as a passive in postclassical Latin. reor,reri,ratus sum,to think. Pr.Part.Active is wanting. tueor,tueri,tuitus(tutus sum),to protect. In early Latin and occasionally later,a parallel form,tuor,tui,tuitus sum, occurs.For toitus usually tutatus. vereor,vereri,veritus sum,to fear. 165 In the third conjugation : apiscor,apisci,aptus sum,to get. Simple verb is frequent in early and late Latin.Of the compounds,adipiscor, adipisci,adeptus sum,is usually deponent in classical times,but occurs occasionally as a passive in SALL.and later writers.The compounds ind-,red-,are rare. amplector,amplecti,amplexus sum,to twine round,embrace. So the compounds complector,circumplector.In early Latin active forms are occasionally found;e.g.,amplectitote,circumplecte(PLAUT.). comminiscor,comminisci,commentus sum,to think up,devise. OVID and later writers use commentus as a passive. expergiscor,(reg) expergisci,experrectus sum,to(right one's self tip) awake. fungor, fungi,functus sum,to discharge. This verb is used passively very rarely :TER.,Ad.508.LUCR,iii.,968.Cic.,Sest. 4,10. fruor(frugv),frui,fructus(fruitus) sum,to enjoy. The form fruitus is rare and late. [DEPONENTS.113] gradior,gradi,gressus sum,to step, aggredior,aggredi,aggressus sum,to attack. Occasionally active forms of the fourth conjugation are found in early Latin. labor,labi,lapsus sum,to glide. loquor,loqui,locutus sum,to speak. morior,mori,mortuus sum,to die. Early Latin shows parallel forms of the fourth conjugation,as moriri,emoriri.Fut.Part,moriturus;see 135,ii.3. nanciscor,nancisci,nactus(nanctus) sum,to get. nascor(gna),nasci,natus sum,to be borm. Fut.Part,nasciturus. nitor(gnict- }niti,nisus(nixus) sum,}.to stay one's self on. from genu) },' nisurus, } obliviscor,oblivisci,oblitus sum,to forget. paciscor,pacisci,pactus sum(pepigi),to drive(a bargain). Occasionally active forms are found in early Latin;in Cic.pactus is frequently used as a passive.See pango. patior,pati,passus sum,to suffer. perpetior,perpeti,perpessus sum,to endure to the end. proficiscor,proficisci,profectus sum,to(get forward) set out. But PLAUT.,MG.1329,proficisco. queror,queri,questus sum,to complain. sequor,sequi,secutus sum,to follow. ulciscor,ulcisci,ultus sum,to avenge. Active forms are rare;so once in ENNIUS.But SALL.,LIVY,and later writers use the verb as a passive sometimes. utor,uti,usus sum,to use. PLAUT.shows the compound abusa as a passive(Asin.196). vehor,vehi,vectus sum,to(wagon) ride. vescor,vesci,to feed. 166.In the fourth conjugation : assentior,assentiri,assensus sum,to assent. Active forms are not uncommon in early Latin.Cic.uses the Pf .active forms frequently;likewise later writers. comperior,comperiri,to find out. Occasionally found(but rarely in classical Latin;as,SALL.,J.,45,1;108,3) for comperio,comperire.But experior,experiri,expertus sum,to try,is regularly deponent;though Cic.and others use often the Pf.active forms. largior,largiri,largitus sum,to bestow. mentior,mentiri,mentitus sum,to lie. The poets and later prose writers use this as a passive also. metior,metiri,mensus sum,to measure. Passive usage is common,especially in the compounds : demensus,dimensus, emensus,permensus,remensus. [114 SEMIDEPONENTS.] ordior,ordiri,orsus sum,to begin. orsus,and more commonly exorsus,are also found as passives. orior,oriri,ortus sum,to arise. The Pr.Indic.is usually formal according to the third conjugation;the Impf. Subjv.always orerer;but the Fut.Part,is oriturus.The compounds follow the same usage except adoriri,to rise up at,attack,which follows the fourth conjugation. partior,partiri,partitus sum,to share. Active forms and passive uses are found in early Latin,and sporadically in Cic. and later. potior,potiri,potitus sum,to get possession of '. The Pr.Indic.,Impf.Subjv.,and occasionally other forms,are also found in early Latin and the poets,inflected according to the third conjugation;so regularly after PLAUT.potitur,frequently poteretur,poteremur. punior,puniri,punitus sum,to punish. Occasionally in Cic.and late writers for punire. sortior,sortiri,sortitus sum,to cast lots. Active occasionally in early Latin,and passive uses later of the Pf .Participle. SEMIDEPONENTS. 167.1.A few verbs form the Perfect forms only as deponents : audeo, audere,ausus sum,to dare. On the aorist forms ausim,etc.,see 131,4,b. fido,fidere,fisus sum,to trust. gaudeo,gaudere,gavisus sum,to rejoice. soleo,solere,solitus sum,to be wont. The Pf.active is found in early Latin;but rarely. 2.The reverse usage is found in : revertor,reverti,reverti,to turn back. So also dgverti,but without Pf.Part.Reversus is also used actively,but rever sus sum for reverti is postclassic. See also assentior,etc.,166. NOTES.1.Some active verbs have a Perfect Participle passive with active meaning,as : cenatus,one who has dined,from cenare,to dine; pransus,having break fasted,from prandeo,I breakfast; potus,drunken,from poto,I drink; iuratus, having taken the oath,sworn.,from iuro,I swear; coniuratus,a conspirator,from coniuro,I conspire. Many such are used purely as Adjectives: consideratus,circumspect (用心深い),from considero; cautus,wary (用心深い),from caveo,I beware. 2.The Perfect Participle of many deponent Verbs has both active and passive meaning : adeptus(adipiscor) having acquired,or being acquired; comitatus(comitor, I accompany); effatus(effor,I speak out); expertus(experior,I try); exsecratus (exsecror,I curse); imitatus(imitor,I copy); meritus(mereor,I deserve); opinatus,necopinatus(opinor,I think); pactus (paciscor,I contract); partitus (partior,I distribute); sortitus(sortior,I cast lots); tueor,I protect; tutus,safe. For others,see the list of deponents. [IRREGULAR VERBS.115] IRREGULAR VERBS. 168.Irregular in the formation of the tensestems : 1.Nine verbs of the third conjugation,which have,in spite of the short stemsyllable,the Pf.in si,viz.: clepo, I filch; rego, I keep right; tego, I cover in; coquo, I bake; and the compounds of lego, I pickup; lacio, I lure; specio, I spy(-ligo,-licio,-spicio); divido, I part; quatio, I shake.See 147,2. From lego,however,only diligo, I love; intellego, I understand;and neglego, I neglect, are irregular.The other compounds are regular.See 147,2. 2.Five verbs of the third conjugation,which,in spite of long stem syllable,have the Pf .in i,viz.: lambo I lick; cudo, I hammer; sido, I sit(160,1); strideo, I whistle(159); verto, I turn(160,1). 3.Assimilation between bs and ms occurs in the Pf.and Sup.of iubeo, I order.See 147,1. premo(primo), I press.See 147,2. 4.Special irregularities occur in : bibo, I drink.154,2. maneo, I remain.147,1. metior, I measure.166. meto, I mow.142,3. morior, I die.165. raucio, I am hoarse.150,2. reor, I think.164. 5.Formed from different tensestems,are the tenses of fero, I bear.171. tollo, I lift.155. 169.Irregular in the conjugation of the Present-stem i 1 .orior,oriri,ortus sum,to arise. See 166. 2.ire,to go. The stem is i,which,before a,o,u,becomes e, PRIN.PARTS : eo,ire,ivi(ii),itum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I go. I be going. PRES. SG.1.eo PL.imus SG.eam PL.eamus 2.is itis eas eatis 3.it eunt. eat eant [116 IRREGULAR VERBS.] IMPF.ibam I went. irem I were going. ibas ires ibat iret ibamus iremus ibatis iretis ibant irent. FUT. ibo,I shall go. ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt. PERF.ivi(ii),I have gone. iverim(ierim). isti ieris iit ierit iimus ieritis ierunt(iere). ierint PLUPF.iveram(ieram),I had gone. ivissem(iissem,issem). ieras isses ierat isset ieramus issemus ieratis issetis ierant. issent. FUT.PF. ivero(iero),I shall have gone. ieris ierit ierimus ieritis ierint. IMPERATIVE. SG. 2.i,go thou. ito,thou shall go. 3. ito,he shall go. PL. 2.ite,go ye. itote,ye shall go. 3. eunto,they shall go. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES.ire. PRES.iens(G.euntis). FUT.iturum esse. FUT.iturus. PERF.ivisse(isse īsse). GERUND. SUPINE. eundi,etc. itum,to go. REMARKS.1.Like the simple verb are inflected most of the compounds,except in the Perfect system,where syncope(語中音消失) regularly takes place(see 131,2). Veneo,I am for sale, and pereo,I perish, serve as passives to vendo,I sell, and perdo,I destroy, whose regular passives occur only in the forms venditus,vendendus,and perditus(but see Hor., Sat.,ii.6,59).Ambio,I solicit,follows the fourth conjugation through out,but in postCiceronian writers(Livy,TAC.,PLIN.Miii.) shows occasional forms like those of eo.Some compounds show occasionally Fut.in eam after the time of SENECA. 2.The passive of the simple verb is found only in the impersonal forms itur,ibatur,itum est,iri(in combination with the Supine). But compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly;so, praetereo forms praetereor, iris,itur,imur,imini,euntur,ibar,etc., itus sum,eram,ero,euntor,itor,iri,eundus. 3.quire,to be able;nequire,to be unable. 170.(a) queo,I am able,is found in the following forms,of which those in parenthesis are unclassical,occurring in early and late Latin and the poets;CAESAR uses no form of queo. PR.INDIC.queo,(quis),(quit),quimus,(quitis),queunt. PR.SUBJV.queam, queas,queat,queamus,queatis,queant. IMPF.(quibam),(quirem). FUT.(quibo). PF.quivi,etc.; quiverim,etc. PLUPF.quiveram,etc.; quivissem, etc.: FUT.PF.quivero,etc. PR.INF.quire.PF.quivisse. PART,quiens. (b) nequeo,I am unable,has the same forms,all of which seem to be classic excepting the Future Indicative,which is not cited. [IRREGULAR VERBS.117] 4.ferre,to bear. 171.The endings beginning with t,s,and r are added directly to the root(132).Some parts are supplied by tul (tol,tla). PRIN.PARTS : fero,ferre,tuli,latum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES.I bear. I be bearing. SG. 1.fero, PL. ferimus, SG. feram, PL. feramus, 2.fers, fertis, feras, feratis, 3.fert, ferunt. ferat, ferant. IMPF.ferebam, I was bearing. ferrem,I were bearing. FUT. feram, I shall bear. PERF.tuli, I have borne. tulerim. PLUPF.tuleram. tulissem. FUT.PF.tulero. IMPERATIVE. SG.2.fer, bear thou. ferto, thou shalt bear, 3 ferto, he shall bear, PL.2.ferte, bear ye. fertote, ye shall bear, 3 ferunto, they shall bear. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES.ferre. PRES.ferens, bearing. FUT.laturum esse. FUT.laturus. PERF.tulisse. GERUND, SUPINE, ferendi,etc. latum(t(o)latum). PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I am borne. I be borne. PRES. SG.1.feror, PL. ferimur, SG.ferar, PL.feramur, 2.ferris, ferimini, feraris, feramini, 3.fertur, feruntur. feratur, ferantur. IMPF. ferebar. ferrer. FUT. ferar. PERF. latus sum. latus sim. PLUPF. latus eram. latus essem. FUT.PF. latus ero. [118 IRREGULAR VERBS.] IMPERATIVE. SG. 2.ferre,be thou borne. fertor, thou shalt be borne 3. fertor, he shall be borne. PL. 2.ferimini,be ye borne. 3. feruntor, they shall be borne INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRES.ferri,to be borne. PERF.latus,a,um,borne. Fut.latum iri. GERUNDIVE. PERF.latum esse,to have been borne. ferendus. COMPOUNDS. affero, afferre, attuli, allatum, to bear to. aufero, auferre, abstuli, ablatum, to bear away. confero,conferre, contuli. collatum, to collect. differo,differre, distuli, dilatum, to put off. effero, efferre, extuli, elatum, to carry out. offero, offerre, obtuli, oblatum, to offer. NOTES.1.The Pf.tuli was originally reduplicated tetuli.See 134,iii.,155. Traces of this are seen in rettuli. 2.Suffero,I undergo,has the Pf.sustinui(sustuli,sublatum,being appropriated to tollo).(155.) 5.edere,to eat. 172.In certain forms the endings beginning with s,t,and r are added directly to the root(132);d before s(r) is dropped or assimilated(as ss),and before t becomes s. PRIN.PARTS : edo,edere(esse),edi,esum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. I eat. I be eating. SG.1.edo, PL. edimus, SG. edam, PL. edamus, 2.edis,es, editis,estis, edas, edatis, 3.edit,est, edunt. edat, edant. IMPP.edebam, I ate. ederem,essem,I were eating FUT.edam. PBRF.edi. ederim. PLUFF.ederam. edissem. FUT.PF.edero. [IRREGULAR VERRS.119] IMPERATIVE. SG.2.ede,es, eat thou. edito,esto, thou shalt eat. 3 edito,esto, he shall eat. PL.2.edite,este, eat ye. editote,estote, ye shall eat. 3 edunto, they shall eat INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRES.edere,esse,to eat. PRES.(edens). FUT.esurum esse. FUT. esurus. PERF.edisse. GERUND. SUPINE. edendi,etc. esum,esu. PASSIVE. In the passive voice the only peculiarities are as follows: Pr.Indic. Sing.Third, editur and estur. Impf.Subjv.Sing.Third, ederetur and essetur. The Pf.Part,is esus and the Gerundive edendus. NOTE.In the Pr.Subjv.Active,early Latin shows edim,edis,edit,edimus, editis,edint. Also essum and essu in the Sup., essurus in the Fut.Part. Comedere also shows comestus for comesus. 6.fieri,to become. 173.Fio is conjugated in the Present,Imperfect,and Future, according to the fourth conjugation,but in the Subjunctive Imperfect and in the Infinitive the stem is increased by e; thus, fierem,I were becoming; fieri,to become. In these forms the i is short,but else where it is long even before another vowel. The Infinitive ends in ri,and the whole Verb in the Presentstem is treated as the Passive to facio,I make.The rest of the Passive is formed regularly from facio. PRIN.PARTS : fio,fieri,factus sum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. PRES. facio, I make. INDIC.fio,I am made,I become. fis,fit(fimus,fitis),fiunt. IMPF. faciebam, I made. fiebam,I was made,I became. FUT. faciam, I shall make. fiam, I shall be made(become). PERF. feci. factus sum. PLUPF. feceram. factus eram. FUT.PF. fecero. factus ero, SUBJV.fiam,fias,fiat,etc. fierem,fieres,etc. etc. INFINITIVE. PRES. fieri. PERF. factum esse,to have become, IMPERATIVE. FUT. futurum esse or fore. (fi),(fito). FUT.Pr. factum fore. (fite). [120 IRREGULAR VERBS.] NOTES.1.Occasionally in early Latin the form fiere is found for the Infinitive, which indicates that the verb was originally active.The forms fieri and fierem are very common in early Latin,along with the normal forms.Of the forms in parenthesis fimus and fitis do not certainly occur,and the Imperative forms are early.Passive forms of fio are very rare;never in PLAUTUS or TERENCE. 2.The compounds of facio with Prepositions change the a of the stem into i,and form the Passive in classical Latin regularly from the same stem : perficio,I achieve Pass,perficior; interficio,Pass,interficior,I am destroyed.But interfieri,confierent,confieri, and several other forms are found in early Latin,and occasionally in classical times.When compounded with words other than prepositions,facio retains its a,and uses fio as its Passive : patefacio,I lay open,Pass.patefio; calefacio,I warm, Pass,calefio. For the accent,see 15,2,R.2. 174. 7.velle,to be willing. nolle,to be unwilling; malle,to be willing rather. PRIN.PARTS : volo,velle,volui;nolo,nolle,nolui;malo,malle,malui. INDICATIVE. PRES. volo, nolo, malo, vis, non vis, mavis, vult, non vult, mavult, volumus, nolumus, malumus, vultis, non vultis, mavultis, volunt. nolunt. malunt. IMPF.volebam, nolebam, malebam. FUT.volam, nolam, malam, voles,etc. noles,etc. males,etc. PERF. volui, nolui, malui,etc. PLUPF.volueram, nolueram, malueram,etc, FUT.PF.voluero, noluero, maluero,etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES.velim, nolim, malim, velis, noils, malis, velit, nolit, malit, velimus, nolimus, malimus, velitis, nolitis, malitis, velint. nolint. malint. IMPF.vellem, nollem, mallem. PERF.voluerim, noluerim, maluerim,etc. PLUPF.voluissem, noluissem, maluissem,etc. [DEFECTIVE VERBS.121] IMPV. SG.noli,nolito. PL.nolite,nolitote,nolunto. INF.PR. velle, nolle, malle. PF. voluisse, noluisse, maluisse. PART, volens, nolens. NOTES.1.To the time of CICERO,and occasionally later, volt,voltis,are employed for vult,vultis. In familiar language si vis,si vultis,were contracted to sis, sultis; vis was further combined with -ne into vin. 2. Nolo is a contraction of nevolo(= non volo),and in early Latin we find,along with the forms given above,also nevis,nevolt;also occasionally we find non velis, non velit,non velint,non vellem,for nolis,etc.; but the feeling is slightly different. 3. Malo = ma volo,from mag(mage,magis)-volo.Frequently in PLAUT.,but rarely in TER.,we find mavolo,mavolunt,mavolet,mavelim,-is,-it,mavellem, instead of malo,malim,malis,etc. 175. DEFECTIVE VERBS. I .aio,I say aye. INDIC. PRES.SG. 1.aio, 2.ais, 3.ait, PL.3.aiunt. IMPF.  aiebam,etc. PERF. 3 ait SUBJV.PRES.SG. 2.aias, 3.aiat, 3.aiant. PART, aiens(as adj.),affirmative. IMPV.ai. NOTE.In early Latin ain(= aisne ?) was scanned often as a monosyllable;and in the Impf., aibam,aibas,aibat,aibant were frequently employed along with the normal forms.The Impv.is rare,and found only in early Latin.Pr.Subjv.aiam is emended into PL.,Ep.,281. 2.inquam,I say,quoth I. INDIC. PRES, SG. 1.inquam, 2.inquis, 3.inquit. PL. 1.inquimus, 2.inquitis, 3.inquiunt. IMPF. SG. 3.inquiebat. FUT. SG. 2.inquies, 3.inquiet. PERF. SG. 1.inquii, 2.inquisti, 3.inquit. IMPV.inque,inquito. 3.fari,to speak. INDIC. PRES.fatur. FUT.fabor,fabitur. PERF.fatus sum,etc. IMPV.fare. PART. PRES.fans,fantis,fanti,fantem. GER.fandi,fando. SUP.fatu. NOTE.In addition to these,compounds show also PRES.: -faris,-famur,-famini, -fantur;IMPF.: -fabar,-fabantur;FUT.: -fabere,-fabimur;PART.: -fante and others.These forma,as well as the uncompounded forms,though occasionally found in prose,are peculiar to the poets until post-Augustan times.The Pf .Part,is sometimes used passively;so especially fatum,fate; effatus,designated. [122 DEFECTIVE VERBS.] 4.havere(avere),salvere. IMPV.have, salve,salvebis, hail thou ! haveto, salveto. havete, salvete, hail ye ! INF.havere, salvere. Corresponding to these are the forms of valere,viz.: vale,valete,valere,farewell. 5.coepi,memini,odi,novi. In use only in the Perfect-stem are coepi,I have begun, which serves as a Perfect to incipio,and memini,I remember, odi,I hate, novi(from nosco,see 131,3,140),I know,am aware, consuevi(from consuesco),I am wont, which have the force of Presents. a.INDIC. coepi,I have begun. SUBJV.coeperim. coeperam. coepissem. coepero. INF. coepisse,to have begun. NOTE.Early Latin shows coepio,coepias,coepiat,coepiam,coepere,coeperet. Future Participle coepturus is Post-Augustan.incepi is anteclassical. Passive forms coeptus sum,etc.,occur with the same meaning in combination with a Passive Infinitive.See 423,N.3. b.INDIC.memini, I remember. SUBJV. meminerim. memineram. meminissem. meminero. INF. meminisse,to remember. IMPV.SG.memento. PL. mementote. c.INDIC.odi,I hate, SUBJV. oderim. oderam. odissem. odero. INF. odisse,to hate. FUT.PART.osurus. NOTE.Occasionally in early Latin,the poets,and later prose,deponent forms of the Perfect are found,osus sum,etc.For the Passive the phrase odio esse is used. d.INDIC.novi. SUBJV. noverim(norim). noveram(noram). novissem(nossem). novero(noro). INF. novisse(nosse) to know. 6.cedo,quaeso. Other defective forms are : SG. cedo,give !(old Impv.) PL.cette. INDIC.PRES. quaeso,please(i.e.,I seek,beg), quaesumus. NOTE.Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin,and sporadically in Cic.,SALL.,and later;the Pf.forms have been attached to quaerere,137,c. [FORMATION OF WORDS.123] FORMATION OF WORDS. 176.By the formation of words is meant the way in which stems are made of roots,new stems of old,and in which words are compounded. 177.All roots of the Latin language are probably monosyllabic.* They can be ascertained only by scientific analysis. The difference between Root and Stem has been set forth in 25,NN. Sometimes the Stem is the same as the Root;especially in the Root Verbs(132).But it is usually different. 178.Words are either simple or compound. A simple word is one that is formed from a single root : sol,sun; stare,stand,stay. A compound word is one that is made up of two or more roots : solstitium,sunstaying,solstice(夏至). A.Simple Words. 179.Simple words are partly primitive,partly derivative or secondary. 1.Primitive words come from the root(語根),and as this usually appears in the simplest form of the verb-stem,primitive words are called verbals.Examples are the root-verbal forms(134,ii.,132,135,i.), some substantives of the third declension,as dux(ducs),leader,root duc(see 183,i), many substantives of the first,second,and fourth declensions,as : scriba(scribo,I write),scribe(秘書). 2.Derivative words are formed from a noun-stem;hence called denominatives : vetustas,age,from vetes(N.vetus),old. NOTE.Denominative verbs include many verbs which cannot definitely be referred to any substantive;such as many frequentatives and intensives.In its narrower sig nification the term refers to the special class of verbs made from substantives in use. 180.Substantives are generally formed by means of a suffix. A suffix is an addition to a stem,and serves to define its meaning or show its relations.So from the verbal stem scrib (scribo,I write) comes scriptor,writer; scriptio(n),writing. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- * The theory of monosyllabic roots is adopted here as being somewhat more con venient than the theory of polysyllabic roots,now held by some important scholars. Of course it will be understood that the actual existence of mere roots can be assumed only for a very early period in the development of language,long before the indepen dent existence of Latin. [124 FORMATION OF WORDS.] Suffixes are either primary or secondary.A primary suffix is one added to a root(or verb stem) to form primitive words.A secondary suffix is one used in the formation of derivative words.Thus, -tor in scriptor is a primary suffix; -tas in vetustas is secondary. NOTES.1.By the fading out of the difference between primary and secondary suffixes,primary suffixes come to be used sometimes to form secondary derivatives. 2.Consonant stems before consonant suffixes undergo the usual changes(9).So scribtor becomes scriptor; regs becomes rex. Stems are sometimes extended by a vowel,usually i,less often u,to facilitate pronunciation : validus,strong; documentum,proof; sometimes they change the stem vowel : teg,cover; toga,toga; tugurium,hut. 3.Vowel stems lengthen the final vowel : acu-,sharpen; acumen,sharp part,point.(尖った個所、先) The final vowel often disappears before the suffix : opta-,choose; optio,choice. 181. FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. The suffixes,as applied to various roots,have often special functions,and form words of definite meaning.The most important are as follows : 1.Agency is indicated by -tor,-tric(N.tor(m.),trix(f.)): amator,lover; victrix,conqueress; occasionally -ter(N.ter,G.tri) : arbiter(= ad + ba,step), umpire; -on(N.o,G.onis) : combibo(fellow-drinker),boon companion; occasionally -o,-a(N.us,a) : servos,slave; scriba,scribe; -ono -ona(N.onus,ona) : colonus,settler(植民者); -(i)t(N.es,G.itis) : miles,soldier,and a few others. 2.Action,Activity,and Event are indicated by a. -tu(N.tus,sus,G.us) : adventus,arrival; -trina(N. trina) : doctrina,instruction; -ina(N.ina) : rapina,rapine(略奪); -men (N.men,G.minis) : agmen,train(行列); -mento(N.mentum) : tormentum, torture(拷問); -ela(ella) : loquela,speech; querela,complaint; -cinio (N.um) : latrocinium,highway robbery; -monio,-monia(N.monia,monium) : querimonia,complaint; testimonium,testimony. b.Abstracts. Masculine : -os(N.or,G.oris) : angor,anguish. Feminine : -on(N.de,go,G.inis) : imago,image; cupido,desire; -ia : audacia,boldness; -ion(N.io) : legio,legion(軍団); -tin : avaritia, avarice; collateral are some with Nom.in -ties,as durities,hardness; -tion(N.tio,sio) : ambitio,ambition; confusio,confusion; -tat (N.tas) : aequalitas,equality; -tura : pictura,painting; -tut(N.tus, sus): iuventus,youth; -tu(su)(N.tus,sus), sensus,perception(知覚); -tudon(N.tudo,G.inis): aegritudo,sickness of heart. Neuter: -tio (N.tium) : servitium,bondage(奴隷の身分). 3.An Artisan or Tradesman is indicated by -ario(N.arius) : argentarius,money changer(両替). [FORMATION OF WORDS.125] 4.The Trade is indicated by -aria : argentaria,silver mine,bank(銀山、銀行). 5.The Locality of the work(or trade) is indicated by -ario(N.arium) : seminarium,seed-plot;(苗床、学校) -onio(N.onium) : fullonium,fuller's shop;(洗い張り屋) -ina : officina,workshop(仕事場); -cro,-culo(N.crum, culum) : lavacrum,bath; -trino,-trina(N.trina,trinum) : sutrina,shoemaker's shop; pistrinum,mill. 6.Instrument and Means are indicated by -bro,bra,(N.bra,brum) : libra,balance,; cribrum,sieve; -cro,-culo(N.crum,culum) : baculum,walking stick; -lo,-la(N.la, lum) : pila,pillar; telum,weapon; -ulo,-ula(N.ulus,ula,ulum) : capulus,handle; regula,rule; cingulum,girdle; -mento(N. mentum) : alimentum,nourishment; -fro,-tra(N.tra,trum) : fenestra,window; aratrum,plough. 7.Relationship is indicated by -ter(N.ter,G.tris) : pater,father; mater,mother. 8.Condition or Relation by -ina : disciplina,discipline; medicina,medicine. g.Function is indicated by -tura(sura) : cultura,cultivation. 10.Office is indicated by -atu(N.atus,G.atus) : consulatus,consulship; -tura(sura) : dictatura,dictatorship. 11.Dense Growths are indicated by -eto(N.gtum) : murtetum,myrtle grove; -to(N.tum) : virgultum,brushwood. 12.Diminutives are indicated by -lo,-la(N.lus,etc.),before which a liquid is assimilated(9,3) : (ager),agellus,little field; (tabula),tabella,tablet; (corona),corolla,chaplet; Catullus(= Catonlus); homullus(= homonlus),manikin; -olo,-ulo : olo after e,i,v,otherwise -ulo(N.olus,ola,ulus,ula) : (alveus),alveolus,little hollow; (filia),filiola,little daughter; (valva),valvolae,pod(little flaps); (circus),circulus,little ring, -culo,-cula (N.culus,etc.),after e,i,u,and consonant stems : (spes),specula,slight hope; (amnis),amniculus,streamlet; (versus),versiculus,versicle; (homo,homin-),homunculus,manikin; (flos),flosculus,floweret; (cor, cord-),corculum,dear heart. NOTE.Diminutives have,as a rule,the gender of their primitives.Exceptions are sometimes due to difference in signification. [126 FORMATION OF WORDS.] 182. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. The significance of the most important adjective suffixes,which are often identical with the substantive suffixes,are as follows : 1.Action is indicated by -bundo,-bunda : cunctabundus,lingering. Repeated action by -ulo,-ula : credulus,quick to believe; querulus,complaining. Passive action is indicated by bili; amabilis,lovable; vendibilis,to be sold. 2.Capacity and Inclination are indicated by -cundo,-cunda : facundus,of ready speech; verecundus,modest. Passive Capacity by -ili : agilis,readily moved,quick; docilis,teachable. The Capacity and Resulting Condition by tili : ductilis,ductile; fictilis,capable of being moulded,of clay. 3.Tendency is indicated by -aci(N.ax) : audax,bold; rapax,greedy. 4.Likeness and Composition or Material are indicated by -aceo,-acea : arundinaceus,reedy; cretaceus,chalky; -icio : latericius,made of brick; -no,-na : acernus,of maple; -neo,-nea : aeneus,brazen. 5.Belonging to is indicated by -io,-ia : imperatorius,belonging to a general; -icio,-icia : aedilicius,belonging to an aedile; -ano,-ana : humanus,human; urbanus,urbane,city. 6.Appurtenance and Medium are indicated by -tico, -tica : aquaticus,aquatic; -tili: aquatilis,aquatic; plumatilis,(embroidered) like feathers. 7.Origin is indicated by -io,-ia : Cornelia(lex),Corinthius; -ano,-ana,-ino,-ina : Romanns.Latinus. 8.Time is indicated by -tino,-tina : crastinus,of tomorrow; -terno,-terna : hesternus,of yesterday; -urno,-urna : nocturnus,by night; -tino,-tina : matutinus,of early morning. 9.Locality,where,whence,is indicated by -ia : Gallia,Gaul; -tino : intestinus,inner,intestine; -ensi : circensis,from the circus; Siciliensis,Sicilian; -ati(N.as) : cuias,of what country ? [FORMATION OF WORDS.127] 10.Fulness is indicated by -oso,-osa : animosus,full of spirit; verbosus,wordy; -lento,lenta : sanguinolentus,bloody; opulentus,with abundant means. 11.Descent and Relationship are indicated in Latin mainly by Greek adjectives,made by the addition of Greek suffixes to proper names. These suffixes are M.-ides(G.idae),F.-is(G.idis),from Nominatives in us,or,os, and s preceded by a consonant;M.-ides(G.Idae),F.-eis(G.eidis), from Nominatives in -eus;M.-ades(G.adae),F.-eis(G.Sidis),from Nominatives in -as(G.ae) and -es(G.ae);M.-iades(G.iadae),F. -ias(G.iadis).from Nominatives in ius,es,on,o;F.-ine,from Nominatives in -us and -eus;F.-ione,from Nominatives in ius : (Tantalus) Tantalides,son of Tantalus; Tantalis,daughter of Tantalus; (Pelops) Pelopides; (Theseus) Thesides,Theseis; (Aeneas) Aeneades(Aeneadae also); (Laertes) Laertiades; (Neptunus) Neptunine; (Acrisius) Acrisione,etc. 12.Diminutive adjectives are formed by the same suffixes as diminutive substantives(181,12) : albus,white, albulus,whitish; miser,wretched, misellus,poor(little); acer,sharp, acriculus,somewhat sharp. 183. SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT SUFFIXES. (Root Substantives.) A few substantives are formed from roots without a suffix : 1.With weak root : ducs(dux),leader,from root duc,lead; necs (nex),killing,from root nec,kill. 2.With strong root : lucs(lux),light,from root luc,light; regs (rex),king,from root reg,rule. 3.With reduplication : carcer,jail; marmor,marble; murmur, murmur. THE SUFFIXES IN DETAIL. 184 Vowels. -o,-a(N.us,a,um).Primary and secondary adjectives,and primary substantives.The primary adjectives resemble somewhat active participles in meaning; ferus,wild; vagus,wandering. Secondary are especially adjectives in -orus,as decorus,graceful from decor,grace, and many others.Masculine substantives in us are often nouns of agency,sometimes nomina actionis and concretes therefrom : coquos,cook; rogus,pyre. Those in a(a) are regularly nomina agentis,especially in composition; scriba,scribe; agricola,husbandman (land-tiller). Feminines are in -o(which are principally names of trees : pirus,pear tree ) and in -a : lupa,she-wolf, as well as lupus. Neuters are those in um,especially names of fruits : pirum,pear. [128 FORMATION OF WORDS.] -i(N.is,e).Substantives : M . orbis,circle; piscis,fish,etc.; F.avis,bird; navis,ship; N.mare,sea; conclave,room. Adjectives : dulcis,sweet; turpis,ugly. NOTE.In adjectives especially,i is often weakened from o,as inermis and iner mus,etc.Sometimes in substantives the Nom,shows es instead of is,as caedes and caedis,etc. -io,-ia(X.ius,ia,ium).--1.This is the principal secondary suffix,and is found in many combinations;but it is also found as primary in substantives : M.genius,genius; gladius,sword; F.pluvia,rain; tibia,fife; N.folium,leaf; odium,hate; and in adjectives eximius,preeminent(taken out); saucius,wounded, pluvius,rainy. 2.The suffix occurs as secondary in the forms -eio(aeo) -io,eo,io,in a large number of Gentile names : Flaveius,Flavius; Luceius,Lucius,Lucius; similar to these are those in edius,idius,idius,-elius,ilius,as Lucidius, Cornelius, Lucilius. Also in some adjectives of material in eus,as aureus,golden; ferreus,iron. It occurs,moreover, in many compound adjective and substantive endings,to be discussed later,and in many abstract substantives in antia,entia,as abundantia,abundance; scientia,knowledge,etc. NOTE.Instead of ia,we find ea in a few words : cavea,cage; cochlea,snail. -u(N.us,u). M.arcus,bow; currus,chariot; F.acus,needle; manus,hand; N.gelu,frost; genu,knee. Secondary is socrus,mother-in-law. This suffix is found occasionally in adjectives compounded with manus,as centimanus,hundred-handed; also in the form -ui in a few adjectives,as tenuis,thin. NOTE.The suffix -o often alternates with -u. -uo,ua(N.uos,ua,uom).Primary and secondary substantives and adjectives.Primary : M.equos,horse; F.alvos,belly; N.arvom,field; parvos,small. Secondary : M.patruus,uncle; cervos, stag; F.ianua,gate; cernuos,stooping; aestivos,of the summer. NOTE.IvoS is found in vocivos(vacuos),redivivos,etc.-vo is weakened to -vi in pelvis,basin. 185.Suffixes with Gutturals. 1.-co,-ca(N.cus,ca,cum).This forms both adjectives and substantives,but is usually secondary.As primary it is found in : iocus,jest; locus,place; as secondary in : medicus,physician; pedica,fetter. Adjectives are primary : cascus,very old; or secondary : civicus,civic. 2.-aco,-aca(N.acus,aca,acum).Primary in cloaca,sewer;(下水道) secondary in verbenaca,vervain,(植物名) and in adjectives,as meracus,pure. [FORMATION OF WORDS.129] 3.-ico,-ica(N.icus,ica,icum).In substantives,such as : M. umbilicus,navel; F.lectica,litter; urtica,nettle. In adjectives,as : amicus,friendly,etc. 4.-uco,-uca(N.ucus,uca,ucum).Primary in the adjectives : caducus,tottering; manducus,voracious; secondary in albucus,asphodel; and in substantives 'n-uca,as eruca,caterpillar; verruca,wart. NOTE.Similar is the secondary suffix -inquo in longinquos,distant; propinquos,near. 5.-de(N.ax) forms substantives and adjectives;the latter expressing inclination.Primary : audax,bold; fugax,fleeing. Secondary : F.fornax,furnace; limax,snail; verax,truthful. 6.-ec(N.ex) is found in vervex,wether. 7.-ic(N.ex) forms a number of substantives that are mainly masculine,except names of plants and trees.Primary : M.apex,point; cortex,bark; F.ilex,holm-oak. Secondary : F.imbrex,gutter-tile. 8.-ic(N.ix) forms substantives and adjectives.Primary : F.radix,root; felix,happy. Secondary : cornix,crow,and feminines in -trix. 9.-oc (N.ox) is found in the substantive celox,yacht, and in a number of adjectives : atrox,ferocious. 10.-aceo,-acea(N.aceus,acea,aceum),forms adjectives of material or likeness : cretaceus,chalk-like. NOTE.Notice also the suffix -acio,especially in proper names : Voracia. 11.-iceo,-icio(N.iceus,etc.,icius,etc.),form adjectives in dicating material,the latter suffix also some indicating relation : palmiceus,of palms; tribunicius,proceeding from a tribune. 12.-icio(N.icius,etc.) is found in novicius,new, and in words of participial meaning coming from forms in -to,as adventicius, stranger. 13.-uceo,-ucio,occurs in pannuceus or pannucius.(ぼろぼろの) 14.-cino and cin'io occur(perhaps) in vaticinus,prophetic, and in some secondary neuter substantives,which denote action or event,as latrocinium,robbery. 15.-cro,-cri,-clo,-culo(N.cer,sris,clum,culum) are found in some adjectives with participial force,and in a few neuter substantives indicating,instrument or locality;as alacer,quick; mediocris,mediocre; periclum(culum),danger; baculum,stick(also m.); sepulcrum,grave. Also the primary ridiculus,laughable, and the secondary anniculus,aged. [130 FORMATION OF WORDS.] 186.Suffixes with a Dental. 1.-d(N.(d)s).Substantives only : fraus,cheatery;(詐欺師) merces,pay; custos,guard. 2.-do,-di(N.dus,etc.,dis).A secondary suffix used especially for the formation of adjectives : frigidus,cold; viridis,blooming. 3.-to(-so)(N.tus,ta,tum).This forms substantives and adjectives,and is both primary and secondary.Primary : M.cubitus,elbow; digitus,finger; also substantives in ta after Greek analogy : poeta,poet; F.hasta,spear; amita,aunt; N.lutum,mud; tectum,roof; aptus,fit; beatus,blessed. Secondary : M.nauta,sailor; F.iuventa,youth; N.dense growths in etum : fruticetum,copse;(雑木林) iustus just, and passive adjectives like barbatus,bearded. 4.-ti(si) [N.tis(sis)] forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives.Primary : M.fustis,club; cassis,huntingnet; F.cutis,skin; sitis,thirst; fortis,brave; mitis,mild. Secondary : (1) in adjectives and substantives indicating home,origin,usually preceded by a,i,more rarely e : Camers(Camertis),from Camerinum; Arpinas(Arpinatis),of Arpinum; nostras,from our country; (2) in the form ensi(for entti) in adjectives of origin and locality : Siciliensis,from Sicily; castrensis,belonging to a camp. 5.-t(N.(t)s) forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives.Primary : M.comes,companion; dens,tooth; F.quies,rest; ars,art; locuples,wealthy; with preceding e : dives,rich. Note also the Participles in ns.Secondary : M.ales,bird; eques,horseman. 6.-ento(N.-entus,etc.) forms substantives and adjectives;the latter are participial in nature. M.ventus,wind; F.polenta,cluster; N.unguentum,salve; cruentus,bloody. Secondary adjectives : gracilentus,slender; and by false analogy corpulentus,corpulent,and the like. 7.-tat,-tut(M.tas,tus),forms secondary feminine abstracts and collectives : civitas,citizenship; libertas,freedom; iuventus,youth; virtus,manliness. 8.-tio,-tia,-tie(N.tium,tia,ties),likewise form abstracts and collectives,some neuter,most masculine : servitium,slavery; mollitia and mollities,gentleness,etc. NOTES.1.In initium,beginning,and spatium,room, the suffix is primary. 2.Many roots form various derivatives of similar meaning,thus : duritia, durities, duritas,hardness,etc. 9.-tico(N.ticus,etc.) forms secondary adjectives signifying pertaining to; domesticus,domestic; aquaticus,aquatic. [FORMATION OF WORDS.131] NOTE.In such substantives as canticum,triticum,the ending co has been added to a participial form in to(canto,trito). 10.-ter forms primary substantives of kinship; as, pater,etc. Different in formation is soror, which,like uxor,has no feminine ending. 11.-tor(-sor),F.tric(N.tor,trix),form substantives of agency,those in trix being all secondary : auditor,hearer; venatrix,huntress; -tor is secondary in gladiator,etc. 12.-turo -tura,(N.turus,etc.),forms participles in turus,as amaturus,and feminine substantives denoting activity or office : cultura,cultivation; censura,censorship, 13.-torio(sorio)(N.torius,etc.),form neuter substantives of place and instrument,and adjectives denoting that which pertains to the actor : auditorium,lecture hall; aleatorius,pertaining to a dice player. 14.-tro,-tra(N.tra,trum),forms substantives,mostly neuter,of means: aratrum,plough; fenestra(f.),window. From words like monstrum,monster, come by false analogy those in ster,as pinaster,wild pine. 15.-tero,-tera(N.ter,tra,trum) forms comparatives: alter,other; dexter,right; noster,our; perhaps also adjectives of relation,appurtenance,or locality in -ster(Gr.stris),such as : paluster(= paludter),swampy; equester,equestrian; campester,champaign;(平野) terrester,of the earth,terrestrial. 16.-trino,-trina(N.trina,trinum),forms substantives of activity(f.),or of locality(f.,n.) : doctrina,instruction; pistrina,bakery; pistrinum,(pounding) mill. 17.-till(-sili)(N.tilis,tile) forms primary adjectives of capacity and adaptation,and with preceding a secondary adjectives of relation or belonging : ductilis,ductile;(引き伸ばせる) missilis,missile; aquatilis,belonging to the water. 18.-terno(N.ternus,etc.) forms adjectives indicating time : hesternus,of yesterday. 19.-turno(N.turnus,etc.) forms substantives and adjectives indicating continuance,from which come proper names : Saturnus,Volturnus, taciturnus,silent. 20.-tino,-tino(N.tinus,tinus,etc.),forms adjectives of time,the latter also of place : crastinus,of tomorrow; intestinus,inner,intestine; matutinus,of early morning. 21.-tu(-su)(N.tus,sus) forms substantives of action and its result : adventus,arrival; cursus,course; ortus,rising. 22.-atu(N.atus) forms secondary substantives of office : consulatus,consulship senatus,senate. [132 FORMATION OF WORDS.] 187. Suffixes with a Labial. 1.-bo,-ba(N.bus,etc.),forms substantives and adjectives : M.morbus,disease; F.barba,beard; N.verbum,word; probus,upright. 2.-bro,bra(N.bra,brum),forms substantives indicating means or instrument.Primary : F.dolabra,celt;(鑿) libra,balance;(天秤) terebra,borer;(錐) N.cribrum,sieve. Secondary : candelabrum,candlestick. NOTE.Very rare are masculines;as,faber,wright;Mulciber,Vulcan. (職人) 3.-bulo,-bula(N.bula,bulum),form substantives : F.fabula,tale; fibula(fig),brooch;(ブローチ) N.pabulum,fodder;(飼料) stabulum,stall.(家畜小屋) 4.-bill(N.bilis) forms adjectives,mostly of passive meaning in classical prose : amabilis,lovable; nobilis,noble; flebilis,weeping. 188.Suffixes with an original S. 1.-is(N.is,G.eris) forms a few substantives: vomis(also vomer),ploughshare; (鋤の刃) cinis,ashes; pulvis,dust; cucumis,cucumber. 2.-us(N.us,G.eris,oris) forms primary and secondary neuter substantives.Primary : foedus,bond;(きずな) genus,race; tempus,time. Secondary : pectus,breast; funus,funeral. NOTE.Some such words have become monosyllabic,as aes, ius, rus. 3.-os(or)(N.os,or,G.oris) forms many primary and a few secondary masculine abstracts.Primary : flos,flower; amor,love. Secondary : aegror,sickness. NOTE.Noteworthy are M.lepUS,hare; F.arbos,tree(45 N.); Venus(G.Yeneris), and the adjective vetus(G.veteris),old. 4.-es(N.es,es,G.is,ei) forms a few substantives of the third and fifth declension : vates,bard; fames,hunger; plebes,people. 5.-oro(N.orus,etc.) forms secondary adjectives,as : canorus,sounding; honorus,honourable; and a few substantives,as : aurora, morning; Flora,etc. 189.Suffixes with a Liquid. 1.-lo,-la(N.lus,etc.),forms many feminine and neuter,and a few masculine substantives : M.malus,mast; F.pila,pillar; N.caelum(= caedlum),chisel; filum,thread. 2.-ilO,-ila(N.ilus,etc.),forms primary and secondary substantives [FORMATION OF WORDS.133] and adjectives. M.sibilus,hissing; N.caelum(= cavilum,hollow),heaven; nubilus,cloudy. 3.(-olo),-ulo,-ula(N.ulus,etc.),form primary and secondary substantives,most of which indicate instrument,and primary adjectives indicating repeated action or tendency: M.angulus,corner; oculus,eye; F.regula,rule; tegula,tile; N.iaculum,javelin; speculum,mirror; bibulus,bibulous;(酒好き) credulus,quick to believe; querulus,complaining; caerulus,blue(secondary),and caeruleus. Also famulus,servant, and the extension familia,family. 4.-li(N.lis,le) occurs in the substantive : M.caulis,stalk; and in adjectives : subtilis,fine; incilis,cut in. Secondary in fidelis,faithful. 5.-ili(N.ilis,ile) forms a few substantives and many adjectives indicating passive capacity : F.strigilis,scraper; N.tegile,roof. Also vigil,watchman; agilis,readily moved; docilis,teachable. Secondary in humilis,low, and in the terminations -tilis,-silis. 6.-olO, -ola(after e,i,v),-ulo,-ula(N.olus,ulus,etc.),form diminutives : alveolus,little belly; filiolus,little son; rivulus,brooklet; regulus,chief; vocula,voice; granulum,grain; albulus,whitish; parvolus,small. 7.-ello,-ella(N.ellus,etc.),forms diminutives after l and by assimilation after n,r : popellus,tribelet; tabella,tablet; puella,girl; bellus(bonus),good; misellus(miser),wretched. Doubly diminutive are catellus,puppy; cistella,basket; capitellum,head. 8.-illo,-illa(N.illus,etc.),forms diminutives,and is formed like ello,but usually after a preceding i : pulvillus,small cushion; pistrilla,small mill; sigillum,small image; bovillus,bovine. Also codicilli,billets; pauxillus,slight; pusillus,tiny. 9.-olla,is found in corolla,wreath; olla,jar(aula). 10.-ullo,-ulla,occurs in ullus,any. Sulla( = Surula),Catullus(Catonlus), homullus(= homonlus,小人物). 11.(-colo),-culo(N.culus,etc.),forms diminutives,especially after consonantal and e,i,u stems : M.flosculus,floweret; homunculus, manikin(irregular); avunculus,uncle(mother's brother,irregular); F.specula,little hope; auricula,ear; arbuscula,little tree(irregular); domuncula,little house(irregular); N.corculum,(dear) heart; munusculum,little gift. Adjectives are dulciculus,sweetish, and especially diminutives from comparative stems, meliusculus.(すこしよい) 12.-cello(-cillo)(N.cellus,etc.) stands to culo as ello to ulo: M. penicillus,-m,painter's brush; oscillum,little mouth; mollicellus, softish.(やや柔らかい) [134 FORMATION OF WORDS.] 13.-uleo(N.uleus) forms substantives that were originally adjectival : aculeus,sting. 14.-ali,-ari(N.alis,aris,etc.),form secondary adjectives,some of which are substantivised in the neuter,and a few substantives : venalis,venal;(買収できる) mortalis,mortal; singularis,unique; vulgaris,common; canalis,canal; animal,living being; calcar,spur. 15.-ela(-ella) forms primary and secondary substantives,most of which indicate action: loquela(loquella),talking; candela,candle; custodela,watching. 16.-eli(N.elis,etc.) forms secondary substantives and adjectives: carduelis,linnet;(アカヒワ) crudelis,cruel. REMARK.A further development of -eli is -elio,-elia : Aurelius, contumelia,contumely.(侮辱) 17.-ili(N.ilis,ile) forms secondary substantives and adjectives : M.aedilis,aedile; N.cubile,couch; sedile,seat; civilis,civic; erilis, master's. 18.-mo,-ma(N.mus,etc.),forms primary substantives and primary and secondary adjectives.The feminine substantives express usually the result of an action: M.animus,spirit; calmus,calamus, stalk; F.fama,fame; flamma,flame; N.arma,arms; pomum,fruit. Adjectives,primary: almus,fostering; firmus,strong. Secondary: opimus,fat; patrimus,matrimus,with father,mother,living. 19.-men,(N.men,G.minis) forms primary,neuter substantives,mostly indicating activity or results of activity : agmen,train; flumen,river; but M.flamen,priest. 20.-mento(N.mentum) forms substantives(mostly primary) indicating instrument : alimentum,nourishment; tormentum,torture. NOTES.1.men and mentum are often formed from the same radical.In that case mentum is the more common : tegumen,tegumentum,covering. 2.Rare and archaic are feminines in -menta : armenta = armentum.(家畜) 3.menti occurs in sementis(f ),seed = semen(n.). 21.-met(N.mes,G.mitis) forms a few masculine substantives : trames,path; fomes,fuel; limes,crosspath. 22.-mino,-mina,-mno,-mna(N.minus,etc.),form substantives : M.terminus,boundary; P.alumna,fosterdaughter; femina,woman; N.damnum,loss. 23.-mon(N.mo,G.monis) forms primary and secondary masculine substantives : pulmo,lung; sermo,discourse; temo,pole(of a chariot). 24.-monio,-monia(N.monia,monium),forms primary and [FORMATION OF WORDS.135] secondary substantives.Primary : F.alimonia,nourishment; querimonia,complaint; N.alimonium,nourishment. Secondary : P.acrimonia,tartness; N.matrimonium,marriage. 25.-mor forms primary masculine substantives : cremor,broth; rumor,rumour. 26.-mic(N.mex,G.micis) forms a few substantives : cimex,bug; pumex,pumice. 27.a.-no,-na(N.nus,etc.),forms primary and secondary adjectives;the primary are participial in meaning;the secondary indicate material or relation,and occasionally locality;when added to local comparatives and adverbs,distributive numerals are also formed with this suffix.Primary : dignus,worthy; plenus,full. Secondary : diurnus,daily; fraternus,brotherly; acernus,maple; externus,outer; bini,two each. NOTE.Adjectives denoting material have also neo(= n'eo),as aeneus, brazen;Iligneus,querneus. b.-no,-na(N.nus,etc.),forms primary and a few secondary substantives.Primary: M.furnus,oven; pugnus,fist; F.cena,meal; lana,wool. N.donum,gift; regnum,kingdom. Secondary : M.tribunus,tribune; F.fortuna,fortune; alburnum,sapwood. NOTE.This suffix is extended in pecunia,money. 28.-bundo,-cundo(N.bundus,etc.,cundus,etc.),form adjectives of activity : cunctabundus,delaying; facundus,eloquent. 29.-ni(N.nis) forms primary substantives and adjectives : amnis, stream; penis,tail; panis.bread; immanis,wild; segnis,lazy. 30.-ino,-ina(N.inus,etc.),forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives.Primary : M.dominus,lord; F.pagina, page; licinus,curled upwards. Secondary : M.pedicinus,foot; F.fiscina,basket; N.sucinum,amber; faecinus,making dregs. NOTE.The suffix is extended in the proper name LiciniuS. 31.-ano,-ana(N.anus,etc.),forms secondary adjectives,some of which are substantivised.They indicate origin or appurtenance; decumanus,belonging to the tenth; humanus,human; altanus,seawind. Primary in Volcanus,Diana. 32.-aneo(N.aneus,etc.) forms primary and secondary adjectives.Primary : consentaneus,harmonious. Secondary : subitaneus,sudden. This suffix becomes anio(= an'io) in proper names : Afranius, Fundanius. 33.-eno,-ena(N.enus,etc.),forms secondary substantives and [136 FORMATION OF WORDS.] adjectives : M.Vibidienus; F.catena,chain; habena,rein;手綱 N.venenum,poison; egenus,needy; alienus,strange. NOTE.This is extended to enon in tolleno,(well) sweep.(はねつるべ) 34.-ino,-ina(N.inus,etc.),forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives.Primary : M.catinus,-m,dish; F.rapina, rapine; ruina,ruin; necopinus,unexpected. Secondary: M.pulvinus,cushion; salinum,saltcellar, and many feminines,especially those denoting shops and factories; regina,queen; culina,kitchen; officina,workshop; agninus,belonging to a lamb; divinus,divine. NOTE.An extension of this suffix is found in ricinium,veil. 35.-en(N.en,G.inis) forms a few substantives : M.pecten,comb; N.gluten,glue. 36.-on(N.o,G.inis) forms a few substantives : M.cardo,hinge; margo,rim; ordo,row; F.aspergo,sprinkling; virgo,maid; caro, flesh. NOTES.1.Noteworthy is homo,hominis,man, 2.This suffix occurs very commonly in compounds forming feminine abstracts : -edon(N.edo), dulcedo,sweetness; -idon(N.ido), cupido,desire; formido,fear; -udon(N.udo) testudo,tortoise; -tudon(N.tudo), aegritudo, sickness; -agon(N.ago), imago,image; -ugon(N.ugo), aerugo,rust; -igon(N.igo), callgo,thick darkness; origo,origin,etc. 37.-on(N.o,G.onis) forms primary and secondary substantives. The primary are nouns of agency : combibo,fellowdrinker; praeco, herald; tiro,recruit. The secondary indicate often the possession of some bodily or mental peculiarities; aleo,diceplayer; centurio, centurion. 38.-ion(N.io) forms a few masculine and many feminine primary and secondary substantives.Primary : M.pugio,dagger; F.opinio, opinion; regio,region. Secondary : M.pellio,furrier(毛皮商人); vespertilio, bat; F.communio,communion. NOTE.Especially frequent are feminine abstracts in tio(sio) : ambitio,ambi tion; oppugnatio,siege. Noteworthy are the secondary diminutives, homuncio,小人 senecio.老人 39.-ono, -ona (N.onus,ona),forms few primary and many secondary substantives;the masculines indicate agents,especially person employed : M. colonus,settler; F. matrona,matron; Bellona. 40.-onio,-onia(N.onius,etc.),forms substantives and adjectives : M. Favonius,zephyr; Pomponius,etc.; cauponius,belonging to a host. Neuters indicate the trade or shop : fullonium,fuller's shop. 41.-ro,-ra(N.(e)r,ra,rum),forms primary substantives and adjectives : M. ager,field; caper,goat; murus,ivall; F. laurus,laurel; [FORMATION OF WORDS.137] serra,saw; N. flagrum,whip; labrum,lip; clarus,bright; purus, clean. Often a short vowel precedes : M.numerus,number;F.camera, vault;N.iugerum,measure of land.So hilarus,joyous;Uber, free;camurus,vaulted;satur,full. NOTES.1.Extensions are Mercurius,tugurium,hut. 2.In a number of primary substantives and adjectives simple r is preceded by a short vowel : M. later,tile; anser,goose; F. mulier,woman; N. acer,maple; ver(= veser),spring; cicur,tame. 42.ri(N.(e)r,ris,G.ris) forms substantives and adjectives : M. imber,rainstorm; acer,sharp; funebris,funeral; perhaps celeber,thronged. 43.-aro forms adjectives,as : avarus,greedy; amarus,bitter. 44.-ari -ali(N.aris,alis,etc.),forms secondary substantives and adjectives; -ari when the stem has l, -ali when it has an r : pugillares, tablets; primipilaris,one who has been primipilus;第一歩兵百人隊長 some neuters in ar (from -are) : calcar,spur; exemplar,pattern; pulvinar,(sacred) couch; auxiliaris,auxiliary; militaris,military; consularis,consular. 45.-ario,-aria(N.arius,etc.),forms substantives and adjectives.There are sometimes collateral forms in -aris.The substantives, when masculine,indicate artisans; when feminine,business or profession;when neuter,the place where the work is carried on.M. argentarius,moneychanger; ferrarius,iron-worker; F. argentaria, silver mine,bank or banking; N. apiarium,beehive; pomarium,apple orchard. 46.-ero(N.erus,etc.) forms severus,earnest, and the substantive galerus,-m,bonnet. 47.-ari forms the substantive securis,axe, and by extension penuria,want. 48.The letter r appears often in combination with other suffixes,as : -erco in lupercus,Pan; noverca,stepmother; -erto in lacertus,arm; lacertus,a lizard; -erbo in acerbus,sour; superbus,proud; -ervo in acervos,heap; caterva,crowd; -erna in caverna,hollow; lucerna, lamp; -terna in lanterna,lantern; -urno in alburnus,white fish; laburnum,laburnum(植物). 190. FORMATION OF VERBS. 1.Primitives are confined to the Third Conjugation,to some forms of the Irregular verbs,and to some Inchoatives.The various stem formations are shown in 133. 2.Derivatives comprise the verbs of the First,Second,and Fourth [138 FORMATION OF WORDS.] Conjugations,and some verbs of the Third Conjugation.They are all (except the Inchoatives and the Meditatives) formed with the suffix io, ie(yo,ye),which is added either to simple verbal stems,or to noun (16) stems already existing or presupposed.The i in io,ie,contracts with the preceding vowels a,e,i,u,leaving the ordinary forms of the regular conjugations.Certain categories of these verbs have obtained special names according to their various meanings : The Causatives,formed by a change in the stem-vowel. The Desideratives,formed by the addition of -io to nomina agentis in tor;afterwards a desiderative force was associated with the combination -torio(-tario),and it was applied indiscriminately. The Frequentatives come originally probably from participial stems in -to;Latin developed also the suffix -ito;further,this being added again to to gave rise to -tito(-sito). The Inchoatives,formed by a special suffix,-sco(sko),are treated in conjugation as primitives belonging to the Third Conjugation. The Meditatives have not been explained. NOTE.Theoretically the Verbalia are all Denominativa,but owing to the wide working of Analogy,it has been impossible in many cases,as in amare,monere,to discover an original noun;while in other cases,as the verbal is formed from a part of a denominative verb,it is convenient to retain the division. 191. A.Verbalia(derived from verbstems,190,N.): 1.Frequentatives or Intensives,denoting "repeated or intense Action".These verbs end in -tare(-sare),-itare,-titare(-sitare), and follow the supine stem(perfect passive form). (a) cantare,sing;compare cano(cantum) : cursare,run to and fro; compare curro(curstun) : dictare,dictate;compare dico(dictum) : dormitare,be sleepy;compare dormio(dormitum) : habitare,keep,dwell; compare habeo(habitnm) : pollicitari,promise freely;compare polliceor (pollicitus) : pulsare,beat;compare pello(pulsum). (b) agitare(ago), noscitare(nosco), sciscitare(scisco), visitare(viso), vocitare(voco), volitate(volo). (c) cantitare(cantare), dictitare(dictare), cursitare(cursare). NOTES.1.The simple verb presupposed by the frequentative or intensive is often out of use,as in the case of : gustare,taste; hortari,exhort. The frequentative or intensive in -tare is often out of use : actitare,repeatedly or zealously agitate(no actare),from ago,actum: lectitere,read carefully(no lectare),from lego, lectum. 2.The verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form no frequentatives except dormio,sleep,dormito; munio,fortify,munito(rare); salio,leap,salto; aperto,lay bare, and operto,cover, and compounds of vento(venio,come). 2.Inchoatives indicate "entrance upon an action".For their formation see 133,V. 3.Desideratives denote "Desire or Tendency".They are formed [FORMATION OF WORDS.139] by means of the suffix -turio(-surio) : esurire(for edt),to be sharp-set for eating,hungry; empturire,to be all agog(うずうず) for buying. 4.Causatives signify "the Effecting of the Condition" indicated by their original verb.They are found mainly in the Second Conjugation, and show usually a change in the stem-vowel. Change: cadere,fall,and caedere,fell; liqugre,melt(trans.),and liquere,melt(intr.); from root men(as in memento) comes monere, remind; necare,kill,and nocere,be death to; placere,please,and placare,cause to be pleased,appease; sedere,sit,and sedare,settle. No change; fugere,flee,and fugare,put to flight; iacere,throw,and iacere,(lie) thrown; pendere(hang) weigh,and pendere,hang(intr.). 5.Meditatives :(verbs that look forward to an action).These end in -essere : arcessere,to summon; capessere,to catch at; facessere,to do eagerly; incessere,to enter; lacessere,to irritate(136,3,V). 192.B.Denominatives(derived from noun-stems) : 1.These are most commonly found in the First Conjugation,even though the stemvowel of the noun is i or u. (a) acervare,heap up(from acervos); aestuare,seethe(aestus);煮る coronare,wreathe(corOna); levare,lighten(levis); maculare,besmirch(macula);泥を塗る nominare,name(nomen,nominis); onerare,load (onus,oneris). The Deponents signify "Condition,Employment" : aneillari,be maid (ancilla); aquari,be a drawer of water(aqua);水汲みになる furari,thieve(fOr);盗む laetari,be glad(laetus). (b) albere,be white(albus); florere,be in bloom(flos,floris); frondere, be in leaf(frons.frondis); lucere,be light(lux,lucis). (c) arguere(be bright,sharp),prove; laedere,hurt; metuere,be in fear(metus). (d) custodire,guard(custes,custodis); finire,end(finis); lenire soften(lenis); vestire,clothe(vestis). 3.Noteworthy are the Diminutives formed by the suffix -illare : stillare,drop(stilla);しずくがたれる scintillare,sparkle(scintilla); oscillare,to swing (oscillum).ゆする Similar in function but of different formation are pullulare,sprout(pullus); fodicare,punch(fodere,dig) albicare,whiten (albus). NOTES.1.The Denominatives of the First,Third,and Fourth Conjugations are regularly transitive,those of the Second Conjugation are regularly intransitive. 2.These verbs are often found only in combination with prepositions : abundare, run over,abound(from unda,wave); accusare,accuse(from causa,case); exaggerare,pile up(from agger); exstirpare,root out(stirps); illuminare,illumine.(from lumen,luminis). [140 FORMATION OF WORDS.] B.Compound Words. I.FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 193.1.By composition words are so put together that a new word is made with a signification of its own.The second word is regularly the fundamental word,the first the modifier. NOTE.Properly speaking,composition occurs only in the case of substantives,i.e., where two or more simple stems come together.In verbs,there is either juxtaposition, where the parts still retain their original force,or the combination of a verb with a preposition.Broadly speaking,however,composition applies to all combinations of words. 2.Composition is either proper or improper. 194.Substantive. In Composition Improper there are either traces of construction or the first part is still inflected : enormis = ex norma,out of all rule,; legislator,lawgiver; Senatus-consultum,decree of the Senate. Many of these compounds have gradually become inflectional : delirus(delira),crazy from fear; egregius(egrege),distinguished(from the crowd); proconsul(for pro console); triumvir(from trium virum),etc. NOTE.From composition we must distinguish juxtaposition.So a preposition is brought into juxtaposition with a substantive,or a substantive with a substantive : admodum,to a degree,very; obviam,in the way,meeting; ususfructus,usufruct(使用権); Iuppiter,Father Jove. Noteworthy are the Copulative compounds;such are compound numerals like undecim,duodecim,etc., and occasional others : su-ove-taur-ilia,offerings of swine,sheep,and bulls. 195.Composition Proper. 1.The first part of the compound may be a particle,as nefarius, nefarious(極悪な); vesanus,mad,out of one's sound senses : or a substantive. If it is a substantive (a) The stems in -a,-o,-u regularly weaken these vowels into -i before the consonants of the second part,which i may vanish : causidicus,pleader,lawyer(causa); signifer,standard-bearer(signum); corniger,horn-wearer(cornu); manceps(manu and cap-),one who takes in hand,contractor. The i-stems retain i or drop it : ignivomus,fire vomiting(ignis); naufragus,shipwrecked(navis). (b) Vowel-stems drop their vowel before the vowel of the second part : magnanimus,greatsouled; unanimus,of one mind. (c) Consonant-stems either drop their consonants or add i: homicida,manslayer(homin); lapicida,stonecutter(lapid); matricida, mother-murderer,matricide. NOTE.The first part is rarely,if ever,a verb.APULEIUS uses the form poscinummius,金目当ての [FORMATION OF WORDS.141] 2.The second part of the composition is a noun : triennium,space of three years(annus); misericors,tenderhearted(cor). When the second part ends in a vowel,it adapts itself,if an adjective,to changes of gender,as flavicomus,yellowhaired(coma,hair),金髪の but more often this final vowel becomes i and the adjective follows the third declension : triremis,trireme(remus,oar); abnormis,abnormal (norma,norm). When the second part ends in a consonant,the last term usually undergoes no change : bidens,two-pronged; simplex(simplecs),simple, NOTE.From genus(G.generis),is formed degener,退化した II.SIGNIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS. 196.Compound substantives and adjectives are divided according to their signification into two main classes : Determinative and Possessive. In Determinative compounds one of the terms is subordinate to the other.They fall into two classes : Attributive or Appositional,and Dependent. 197.1 Attributive compounds.The first part is the attribute of the second. The first word is,(1) a substantive : alipes,wingfoot(ed); (2) an adjective : magnanimus,greathearted; latifundium,large estate; (3) a numeral : biennium(i.e.,spatium),space of two years. 2.Dependent compounds.In these the second word is simply limited by the other,its signification not being altered. (a) The first word is :(i) an adjective : meridies(from medidie = medio die),midday; (2) an adverb : beneficus(welldoing),beneficent; maleficus,evildoing; (3) a numeral : tergeminus,triple; (4) a particle : dissonus,harsh-sounding; permagnus,very large; indignus, unworthy; (5) a verb-stem : horrificus,horrible(horror-stirring). (b) The first word gives a case relation,such as (1) the Accusative : armiger = arma gerens,armour-bearer; agricola =.agrum colens(land tiller),husbandman; (2) the Genitive : solstitium = solis statio(sun staying),solstice; (3) the Locative : alienigena(born elsewhere),alien; (4) the Instrumental : tibicen = tibia canens,fluteplayer. 198.Possessive Compounds are adjectival only,and are so called because they imply the existence of a Subject possessing the quality indicated. The first term is, (1) a substantive : anguimanus,(having a) snake hand(elephant) : (2) an adjective : flavicomus,(having) yellow hair; (3) a numeral : bifrons,(having) two front(s); (4) a particle : discors, discordant ;. iners,inactive. [142 FORMATION OF WORDS.] NOTE.Notice that these divisions run into each other;thus magnanimus is possessive,attributive,and dependent. 199.Verb. In Composition Improper the verb is joined to a verb,subtantive,or adverb.In Composition Proper the verb is combined with a preposition. 200.1,Composition Improper . (a) Verb with verb : This only takes place when the second part of the compound is facio or fio(173,N.2).The first part of the compound is regularly an intransitive of the second conjugation : calefacio,calefio,warm,am warmed. (b) Verb with substantive : animadverto = animum adverto,take notice; manumitto,set free; usucapio,acquire by use. (c) Verb with adverb : benedico,bless; maledico,curse; malo, nolo (for mage(magis)volo,ne- volo), satisfacio,satisfy. 2.Composition Proper. The verb combines with separable or inseparable prepositions Compare 413,R.3. (a) With inseparable prepositions : ambeo,go about; amplector,enfold; anhelo.draw deep breath,pant; discurro,run apart; dirimo, 160,1,and 715,R.1; portendo,hold forth,portend(前兆となる); reddo,give back; resolvo,resolve; seiungo,separate. (b) With separable prepositions : abeo,go away; adeo,come up; antecurro,run in advance; compono,put together; decurro,run down, finish a course; excedo,overstep; includo,shut in; obduco,draw over; peragro,wander through; posthabeo,keep in the background; praedico,foretell; praetereo,pass by; prodeo,go forth; praevideo,foresee; subicio,put under; subterfugio,flee from under; supersum, remain over; transgredior,pass beyond. [143] SYNTAX. 201.SYNTAX treats of the formation and combination of sentences. A sentence is the expression of a thought(sententia) in words. Sentences are divided into simple and compound. A simple sentence is one in which the necessary parts occur but once;for the compound sentence see 472. The necessary parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The predicate is that which is said of the subject. The subject is that of which the predicate is said. Luna fulget,The moon shines. Luna is the subject;fulget,the predicate. REMARKS.1.The Interjection(16,R.2) and the Vocative case(23, 5) stand outside the structure of the sentence,and therefore do not enter as elements into Syntax,except that the Vocative is subject to the laws of Concord.See R.3. 2.The Vocative differs from the Nominative in form in the second declension only,and even there the Nominative is sometimes used instead,especially in poetry and solemn prose. Almae filius Maiae,H.,O.,I.2,43;son of mild Mala! Audi tu, populus Albanus,L.,1.24,7;hear thou,people of Alba ! O is prefixed to give emphasis to the address: O formose puer,nimium ne crede colori,V.,EC.2.17;O shapely boy! trust not complexion all too much. The Vocative is commonly interjected in prose,except in highly emotional pas3.On the use of the Vocative of an adjective or participle in apposition,attribution,or predication,see 289,325,R.1. SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 202.The most simple form of the sentence is the finite verb : sum,I am; doces,thou teachest; scribit,he writes. [144 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.] REMARK.Here the form contains in itself all the necessary elements(compare 114),the persons being indicated by the endings. From the expansion and modification of the finite verb arise all the complicated forms of the compound sentence. 203.SUBJECT.The subject of the finite verb is always in the Nominative Case,or so considered. REMARKS.1.The subj.of the Inf.is in the Accusative(343,2). 2.The use of the Nom.in Latin is the same as in English. 204.The subject may be a substantive or a pronoun,or some other word,phrase,or clause used as a substantive : Deus mundum gubernat,GOD steers the universe. Ego reges eieci,[C.] ad Her.,iv.53,66;I drove out kings. Sapiens res adversas non timet,THE SAGE does not fear adversity, Victi in servitutem rediguntur,THE VANQUISHED are reduced to slavery. Contendisse decorum est,Ov.,M.,ix.6;TO HAVE STRUGGLED is honourable. Magnum beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse est mori,SEN.,E.M.,101,14; it is a great boon of nature,THAT WE MUST NEEDS DIE. Vides habet duas syllabas,(the word) "VIDES" has two syllables. NOTES.1.Masculine and feminine adjectives,and to a less degree participles, are used as substantives,but with the following limitations : (a) Many adjectives in -arius and -icus(the latter mostly Greek),designating office or occupation,and words expressing friendship,kinship,or other relationship, are used often as substantives both in the Sing,and the Pl.of the masculine and femi-nine : aquarius,waterman; librarius,bookman(-seller,ivriler,etc.); grammaticus,grammarian; amicus,friend; cognatus,kinsman; socius,partner. Many of these have become almost wholly fixed as substantives,as amicus,friend.See 16,N.1. (b) Adjectives are very often used as substantives in the masc.Pl.when they designate a class : pauperes,the poor; divites,the rich. In the oblique cases of the Sing., this use is also not uncommon;but in the Nom.the substantive is generally expressed : vir bonus,a good man; mulier peregrina,a foreign woman. So regularly,if used with a proper name : Plato,doctissimus homo,the learned Plato. Exceptions are rare and scattering in prose : ego et suavissimus Cicero valemus,C.,Fam.,xiv.5,1. (c) On the use of participles as substantives see 437,N. (d) When persons are not meant,a substantive is understood : cani(capilli),gray hairs; calida(aqua),warm water; dextra(manus),right hand. 2.Neuter adjectives and participles are freely employed as substantives in both numbers;in the Pl.usually in Nom.and Acc.,in the Sing,in all cases,but especially in connection with prepositions : medium,the midst; extremum,the end; reliquom,the residue; futurum,the future; bonum,good; bona,blessings,possessions; malum,evil; mala,misfortunes. The Plural is frequently employed when the English idiom prefers the Singular : vera,the truth; omnia,everything. 3.Adjectives of the Second Declension are sometimes used as neuter substantives in the Gen.,after words of quantity or pronouns : aliquid boni,something good; nihil mali,nothing bad. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus employed only in combination with those of the Second,and even then very rarely(369,R.i). Usually the adjective of the Third Declension draws the adjective of the Second into its own construction : Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum ? C.,Tusc.,1.21,49;what is there to be glad of or to brag about in that ? [SUBJECT-PREDICATE-COPULA.145] 4.Instead of the neuter adjective,the word res,thing, is frequently used,especially in forms which are identical for different genders,and consequently ambiguous;so bonarum rerum,of blessings, rather than bonorum(masc.and neut.). 5.In Latin the Pl.of abstract substantives occurs more frequently than in English; adventus imperatorum,the arrival(s) of the generals (because there were several generals,or because they arrived at different times).Pluralising abstract substantives often makes them concrete : fortitudines,gallant actions; formidines,bugbears(おばけ); irae,quarrels. 6.Other Pl.expressions to be noted are: nives,snow(-flakes); grandines,hail (-stones); pluviae,(streams of) rain; ligna,(logs of) wood; carnes,pieces of meat; aera,articles of bronze; also symmetrical parts of the human body : cervices,neck; pectora,breast. The Pl.is freely used in poetry and in later prose : Otia si tollas,periere Cupidinis arcus,Ov.,Rem.Am.,139;if you do away with holidays,Cupid's bow(and arrows) are ruined. 7.The rhetorical Roman often uses the First Person Pl.for the First Person Singular. The usage originates in modesty,but mock modesty is the worst form of pomposity. It is never very common,and is not found before CICERO : Librum ad te de senectute misimus,C.,Cat.M.,i,3;we(I) have sent you a treatise on old age. In poetry there is often an element of shyness; Sitque memor nostri necne,referte mihi,Ov.,Tr.,iv.3,10;bring me back(word) whether she thinks of us(me among others) or no. 8.(a) The Sing.,in a collective sense,is also used for the Pl.,but more rarely: faba,beans; porcus,pig(meat); gallina,fowl(as articles of food); vestis,clothing. (b) The use of the Sing,in designations of nationalities and divisions of troops is introduced by LIVY : Romanus,the Roman forces; Poenus,the Carthaginians; hostis,the enemy; miles,the soldiery; pedes,the infantry; eques,the cavalry. 205.PREDICATE and COPULA.- When the predicate is not in the form of a verb,but in the form of an adjective or substantive,or equivalent,the so-called copula is generally employed,in order to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject. The chief copula is the verb sum,I am. Fortuna caeca est,C.,Lael.,15,54;fortune is blind. Usus magister est optimus,C.,Rab.Post.,4,9;practice is the best teacher. NOTE.Strictly speaking,the copula is itself a predicate,as is shown by the translation when it stands alone or with an adverb : est Deus,there is a God,God exists; recte semper erunt res,things will always be(go on) well; sic vita hominum est,C.,Rosc.Am.,30,84;such is human life;"So runs the world away." 206.Other copulative verbs are : videri,to seem; nasci,to be born; fieri,to become; evadere,to turn out; creari,to be created; deligi,to be chosen; putari,to be thought; haberi,to be held; dici,to be said; appellari,to be called; nominari,to be named. Hence the rule : Verbs of seeming,becoming,with the passive of verbs of making,choosing,showing,thinking,and calling,take two Nominatives,one of the subject,one of the predicate : [146 SUBJECT OMITTED.IMPERSONAL VERBS.] Nemo nascitur dives,SEN.,E.M.,20,13; no one is born rich. Aristides iustus adpellatur,Aristides is called just. [Servius] rex est declaratus,L.,1.46,1;Servius was declared king. [Thucydides] numquam est numeratus orator,C.,O.,9,31;Thucydides has never been accounted an orator. REMARKS.1.With esse, serve as; videri, seem; haberi, be held; duci,be deemed, and rarely with other verbs,instead of the Predicate Nom.,a phrase may be employed,as : pro with Abl., (in) loco, in numero,with Gen.,etc. Audacia pro muro habetur,S.,C.,58,17;boldness is counted as a bulwark(防波堤). In filii loco,C.,Red,in Sen.,14,35;as a son. 2.The previous condition is given by ex or de and the Abl.(396,N.2). Ex oratore arator factus,C.,Ph.,iii.9,22;a pleader turned plowman. 3.All copulative verbs retain the Nom.with the Inf.after auxiliary verbs(423). Beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest,C.,N.D.,1.18,48;no one can be happy without virtue. 4.On the Double Acc.after Active Verbs,see 340. NOTES.1.The verbs mentioned,with some others,are found in good prose.Others are either poetical or unclassical,thus : perhiberi,to be held, is early; apparere,to appear, is poetic and post-classical for videri; reddi is not used for fieri; sisti,to be set down,is Plautine; manere,to remain,is late(permanere once in CICERO). 2.Noteworthy is the use of audire,like the Greek akouein,to be called, which is confined to HORACE; rexque paterque audisti,Ep.,1.7,38;S.,11.6,20, just as "hear" in this sense is said to be confined to MILTON. 207.SUBJECT OMITTED.- The personal pronoun is not expressed in classical prose,unless it is emphatic,as,for example,in contrasts : Amamus parentes,We love(our) parents. Ego reges eieci,vos tyrannos introducitis,[C.] ad Her.,iv.53,66;I drove out kings,ye are bringing in tyrants. NOTE.The insertion of the pronoun without emphasis is very common in the comic poets,and seems to have been a colloquialism.Also common in CATULLUS,SALLUST(as an archaism),and PETRONIUS. 208.IMPERSONAL VERBS.- Impersonal Verbs are verbs in which the agent is regularly implied in the action,the subject in the predicate,so that the person is not expressed. Chief of these are : 1.Verbs pertaining to the state of the weather: tonat,it thunders,the thunder thunders,or rather,the Thunderer thunders; fulget,fulgurat(less common),fulminat(poet.),it lightens; [COPULA OMITTED.147] pluit(poet.),it rains; ningit,it snows,etc. Nocte pluit tota,V.,(POET.LAT.MIN.,iv.155,B.);all night it(he,Jupiter) rains. NOTE.The divine agent is sometimes expressed;so,naturally,in religious or popular language : Iove tonante,fulgurante,c.,Div.,ii.18,43; Iove fulgente,C.,N.D.,ii.25,65. 2.The passive of intransitive verbs is often used impersonally;so regularly of verbs which in the active are construed with the Dat.(217): vivitur,people live; curritur,there is a running; pugnatur,there is a battle; mihi invidetur,I am envied. The subject is contained in the verb itself : sic vivitur = sic vita vivitur,such is life; pugnatur = pugna pugnatur,a battle is(being) fought. In the same way explain taedet,it wearies; miseret,it moves to pity; piget,it disgusts; pudet,it puts to shame. NOTES.1.With all other so-called Impersonal Verbs an Inf.(422,535) or an equivalent(523) is conceived as a subject : Non lubet mihi deplorare vitam ,C.,Cat. M.,23,84. Sed accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti,C.,Att.,1.17,2. 2.Other uses coincide with the English.So the Third Person PL of verbs of Saying,Thinking,and Calling.Also the ideal Second Person Singular(258).To be noticed is the occasional use of inquit,quoth he, of an imaginary person,but not by CAESAR,SALLUST,or TACITUS : Non concedo,inquit,Epicuro,C.,Ac.,ii.32,101; I do not yield the point,quoth(=said) he(one),to Epicurus. 209.COPULA OMITTED.- Est or sunt is often omitted in saws(ことわざ) and proverbs,in short statements and questions,in rapid changes,in conditional clauses,and in tenses compounded with participles : Summum ius summa iniuria,C.,Off.,1.10,33;the height of right(is) the height of wrong. Nemo malus felix,Juv.,iv.8;no bad man(is) happy. Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas loqui ? C.,Lael.,7,22;what sweeter than to have some one with whom you can venture (quicum=quocum 105 N.3) to talk about everything ? Sed haec vetera;illud vero recens,C.,Ph.,ii.II,25.(All of this is old news,but here is something recent) Aliquamdiu certatum,S.,Iug.,74,3. Cur hostis Spartacus,si tu civis? C.,Parad.,4,30.(これほど町を破壊した君が市民だというなら、スパルタクスがどうして敵と言えるだろう) So also esse,with participles and the like : Caesar statuit exspectandam classem,CAES.,B.G.,iii.14,1 : Caesar resolved that the fleet must be waited for. NOTES.1.The omission of esse is not common with the Nom.and Infinitive. 2.Popular speech omits copula(esse,est) freely;so, mirum ni,mirum quin,factum, in Latin comedy;likewise potis and pote for forms of posse.To a like origin are due mirum quantum, nimium quantum,etc., found at all periods. 3.The ellipsis of other forms of the copula is unusual.Thus CICERO occasionally omits sit in the Indirect Question,and TACITUS other forms of the Subjv.besides. Fuisse is omitted by LIVY,and not unfrequently by TACITUS. 4.The Ellipsis of esse was sometimes due to the desire of avoiding the heaping up of Infinitives.Thus sentences like non dubito te esse sapientem dicere(to declare you to be wise) were regularly cut down to non dubito te sapientem dicere(to declare you wise). [148 AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT.] 5.The ellipsis of other verbs,such as facere,ire,venire,dicere,etc., is characteristic of popular speech;it is therefore not uncommon in CICERO'S letters(ad Att.), in PLINY'S letters,and in works involving dialogue,such as CICERO'S philosophical writings.The historians avoid it,and it never occurs in CAESAR and VELLEIUS. CONCORD. 210.THE THREE CONCORDS.- There are three great concords in Latin : 1.The agreement of the predicate with the subject(211). 2.The agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive (285,321). 3.The agreement of the relative with antecedent(614). 211.Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject. The verbal predicate agrees with its subject in number and person. The adjective predicate agrees with its subject in number gender and case. The substantive predicate agrees with its subject in case. Substantiva mobilia(21,2) are treated as adjectives,and follow the number and gender of the subject. Ego reges eieci,vos tyrannos introducitis,[C.] ad Her.,iv.53,66(207). Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt,C.,Lael.,9,32;true friendships are abiding(長続きする). Dos est decem talenta,TER.,And.,950;the dowry is ten talents. Usus magister est optimus,C.,Rab.Post.,4,9(205). Arx est monosyllabum,"Arx" is a monosyllable. Compare ignis confector est et consumptor omnium,C.,N.D.,ii.15,41;fire is the doer-up(destroyer) and eater-up (consumer) of everything, with confectrix rerum omnium vetustas,C.,Frag. REMARKS.1.The violation of the rules of agreement is due chiefly to one of two causes; either the natural relation is preferred to the artificial(constructio ad sensum,per synesin,according to the sense),or the nearer is preferred to the more remote.Hence the following EXCEPTIONS.(a) Substantives of multitude often take the predicate in the Plural: pars,part; vis(power),quantity(量); multitudo,crowd; organized bodies more rarely.Also,but not often,such words as quisque, uterque, nemo,etc. Pars maior receperant sese,L.,xxxiv.47,6;the greater part had retired. Omnis multitudo abeunt,L.,xxiv.3,15;all the crowd depart. [AGEEEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT.149] Magna vis eminus missa telorum multa nostris vulnera inferebant, CAES.,B.C.,ii.6,5.(遠方から投げられた大量の矢がわが軍の兵士たちにたくさんの負傷をもたらした) Uterque eorum ex castris exercitum educunt,CAES.,B.C.,iii.30,3.(彼らは両方とも陣地から軍を引き出した) NOTE.This usage is very common in comedy,but extremely rare in model prose. LIVY shows a greater variety and a larger number of substantives than any other author,and poets and late prose writers are free.Yet HORACE uses regularly the Sing.with a collective,while VERGIL varies,often employing first a Sing.and then a Pl.verb with the same substantive(as A.,ii.64).TACITUS often uses quisque with a Plural. (b) The adjective predicate often follows the natural gender of the subject;so especially with milia. This usage belongs pre-eminently to the historians. Capita coniurationis virgis caesi(sunt),L.,x.1,3;the heads of the conspiracy were flogged. Samnitium caesi tria milia,Cf.L.,x.34,3; of the Sammies(there) were slain three thousand. The passive verb often agrees in gender with the predicate : Non omnis error stultitia dicenda est,C.,Div.,ii.43,90;not every false step is to be called folly. (c) The copula often agrees with the number of the predicate("the wages of sin is death ") : Amantium irae(204,N.5)amoris integratio est,TER.,And.,555; lovers' quarrels are love's renewal. 2.A superlative adjective defined by a Partitive Gen.follows the gender of the subj.when it precedes: Indus,qui est omnium fluminum maximus,C.,N.D.,ii.52,130;the Indus,which is the greatest of all rivers. Otherwise it follows the Genitive;but this usage is post-classic : Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphinus,PLIN.,N.H.,ix.8,20; the dolphin is the swiftest of all animals.(Velocissimumはanimalと同じ中性で主格) 3.The Voc.is sometimes used by the poets in the predicate,either by anticipation or by assimilation.(See 325,R.1.) 4.The neuter adjective is often used as the substantive predicate of a masculine or feminine subject : Triste lupus stabulis,V.,EC.,3,80;the wolf is a baleful thing to the folds. Varium et mutabile semper femina,V.,A.,iv.569;"a thing of moods and fancies " is woman ever. This construction is poetical;in CICERO it is used with a few words only;such as extremum, commune : Omnium rerum(204,N.4) mors [est] extremum,Cf.C.,Fam:,vi.21,1; death is the end of all things. 5.The demonstrative pronoun is commonly attracted into the gender of the predicate : Negat Epicurus;hoc enim vostrum lumen est,C.,Fin.,ii.22,70;Epicurus says No;for he is your great light. Ea non media sed nulla via est,L.,xxxii.,21,33;that is not a middle course,but no course at all. [150 FORMS OF THE VERBAL PREDICATE.] But in negative sentences,and when the pronoun is the predicate,there is no change.So in definitions : Quid aut quale [est] Deus ? Cf.C.,N.D.,1.22,60;what or what manner of thing is God ? Nec sopor illud erat,V.,A.,iii.173(それは夢ではなかった). Quod ita erit gestum,id lex erit,C.,Ph.,1.10,26.(こうして行われることが法となる) Exceptions are but apparent.C.,O.,ii.38,157. 6.The adjective predicate sometimes agrees with a substantive in apposition to the subject.So especially when the appositive is oppidum,civitas,and the like : Corioli oppidum captum [est],L.,ii.33,9; Corioli-town was taken. Corinthum,totius Graeciae lumen,exstinctum esse voluerunt,C.,Imp.,5,11;they would have Corinth,the eye of all Greece,put out. NOTES.1.Peculiar is the occasional use of the Fut.participle in -urum for feminines in early Latin : Altero(gladio) te occisurum ait(Casina), altero vilicum.PL.,Cas.,693.(一方の剣であなたを殺し、もう一方の剣であなたの執事を殺すと言っていますよ) So Truc.,400. 2.Age is often used in early Latin as if it were an adverb,with the Plural;occasionally also cave : Age modo fabricamini.PL.,Cas.,488.(さあ、準備にかかれよ) Akin is the use of a Voc.Sing,with a Pl.verb,which is occasionally found in classical prose also : Tum Scaevola;"quid est,Cotta ?" inquit,"quid tacetis?" C.,O.,1.35,160.(するとスカエウォラが「どうした、コッタ。どうして黙っている」と言った。) The use of aliquis,some one of you, in this way is early : Aperite aliquis actutum(adv immediately) ostium,TER.,Ad.,634.(だれかすぐに扉をあけてくれ) 3.Other less usual constructions ad sensum are : the use of a neuter demonstrative where a substantive of a different gender is expected,and the construction of res as if it were neuter(both found also in CICERO);the neuter Singular summing up a preceding Plural : In Graecia musici floruerunt,discebantque id(that [accomplishment]') omnes, C.,Tusc.,1.2,4.ギリシアでは音楽家が尊敬され、みんなが音楽を学んだのである) Servitia repudiabat,cuius(of which [class]) initio ad eum magnae copiae concurrebant, S.,C.,56,5(カティリナは当初自分の方に大勢集まってきた奴隷たちを仲間にすることを拒否した).See also C.,Div.,11.57,117. Forms of the Verbal Predicate. VOICES OF THE VERB. 212.There are two Voices in Latin -- Active and Passive. REMARK.The Latin Passive corresponds to the Greek Middle,and,like the Greek Middle,may be explained in many of its uses as a Reflexive. 213.ACTIVE.--The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject.Verbs used in the Active Voice fall into two classes,as follows : Verbs are called Transitive when their action goes over to an object( transeo,I go over );Intransitive when their action does not go beyond the subject : occīdere,to fell = to kill(Transitive); occidere,to fall(Intransitive). [PASSIVE VOICE.151] REMARK.-Properly speaking,a Transitive Verb in Latin is one that forms a personal passive,but the traditional division given above has its convenience,though it does not rest upon a difference of nature,and a verb may be trans,or intrans.according to its use.So (a) Transitive verbs are often used intransitively,in which case they serve simply to characterize the agent(動作主、行為者).This is true especially of verbs of movement;as declinare,deviate inclinare,lean movere,move mutare,change vertere,turn and the like,and is found at all periods. (b) On the other hand,many intrans.verbs are often used transitively.This occurs also at all periods,but the Acc.is usually the inner object(332). (c) On the use of the Inf.active,where English uses the passive,see 532,N.2. 214.PASSIVE. The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the action of the verb. The instrument is put in the Ablative. Virgis caedetur,C.,Verr.,iii.28,69;he shall be beaten with rods. [ignis] lumine proditur suo,Ov.,Her.,15,8;the fire is betrayed by its own light. The agent is put in the Ablative with ab(a). Ab amicis prodimur,C.,Cluent.,52,143;we are betrayed by friends. Virgis caesi tribuni ab legato sunt,L.,xxix.18,13;the tribunes were beaten with rods by the lieutenant. REMARKS.1.Intrans.verbs of passive signification are construed as passives : fame perire,C.,Inv.,ii.57,172,to perish of hunger( morning nor evening prayer." SHAKESPEARE.『ウィンザーの陽気な女房たち』 NOTES.1.This is essentially a colloquialism,common in comedy,especially with ecce and em,(here is) frequent in CICERO'S letters,occasionally found elsewhere.In poetry,notably Augustan,it is almost wholly absent;but there are several cases in HORACE.CICERO does not use em. LIVY does not use ecce. 2.Especially to be noted is sibi velle,to want,to mean : Quid tibi vis,insane,C.,Or.,ii.67,269;what do you want,madman? Quid volt sibi haec oratio ? TER.,Heaut.,615;what does all this holding forth(演説) mean ? Dative of Reference. 352.This indicates the person in whose eyes the statement of the predicate holds good(Dativus ludicantis). Ut mihi deformis,sic tibi magnificus,TAC.,H.,xii.37;to me a monster,to yourself a prodigy of splendour. Quintia formosa est multis,CAT.,86,1;Quintia is a beauty in the eyes of many. [226 DATIVE.] NOTE.This Dative is characteristic of the Augustan poets,but it is also common enough in CICERO and the prose authors. 353.Noteworthy is the use of this Dative in combination with participles,which shows two varieties,one giving the local point of view,the other the mental,both post-Ciceronian and rare.CAESAR gives the first local usage,LIVY the first mental. [Hoc] est oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, CAES.,B.C.,iii.80;this is the first town of Thessaly to those coming(as you come) from Epirus. Vere aestimanti,L.,XXXVTI.58,8;to one whose judgment was true. NOTES.1.This construction is probably drawn from the Greek,although VITRUvros shows several examples. 2.Certainly Greek is the Dat.of the person with volenti,Cupienti,invito(est) etc.,which is found first in SALLUST,once in Livy,and sporadically in TACITUS,and later. Dative of the Agent. 354.The Dative is used with Passive Verbs,in prose chiefly with the Perfect Passive,to show the interest which the agent takes in the result.That the person interested is the agent is only an inference.(See 215.) Mihi res tota provisa est,C.,Verr.,iv.42,91;I have had the whole matter provided for. Cui non sunt auditae Demosthenis vigiliae? C.,Tusc.,iv.19,44;to whom are not Demosthenes'long watchings a familiar hearsay ? デモステネスの不眠症 NOTES.1.Instances of this Dat.with the Tenses of Continuance are poetical,or admit of a different explanation : Barbarus hic ego sum qui non intellegor ulli,Ov..Tr.,v.io,37;I am a barbarian here because I can't make myself intelligible to any one. Whenever an adj.or an equivalent is used,the Dat.Pl.may be an Ablative : Sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur,C.,N.D.,ii.48,123; so,though these little creatures are so very unlike,their food is sought in common. Carmina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus,H.,Ep.,1.IQ,3;poems which are written when people are water-drinkers. Cena ministratur pueris tribus,H.,S.,1.6,116; Dinner is served,(the waiters being) the waiters are(but) three. 2.This Dat.is rare in early Latin,rare,if ever,in CAESAR,not uncommon in CICERO.But it is much liked by the poets and by some prose writers,notably by TACITUS. 355.The agent of the Gerund and Gerundive is put in the Dative,at all periods. Diligentia praecipue colenda est nobis,C.,Or.,ii.35,148;carefulness is to be cultivated by us first and foremost. Desperanda tibi salva concordia socru,Juv.,vi.231;you must despair of harmony while Motherin-law's alive. [DATIVE.227] REMARK.To avoid ambiguity,especially when the verb itself takes the Dat.,the Abl.with ab(a) is employed for the sake of clearness : Civibus a vobis consulendum,C.,Imp.,2,6;the interest of the citizens must be consulted by you. Supplicatio ab eo decernenda non fuit,C.,Ph.,xiv.4,11. Where there is no ambiguity there is no need of ab : Linguae moderandum est mihi,PL.,Curc.,486;I must put bounds to my tongue. NOTE.Poets are free in their use of this Dative;so with verbals in bilis;as, multis ille bonis flebilis occidit,H.,O.,1.24,9;多くのよき人々に嘆かれてあの人は亡くなった。 nulli exorabilis,SIL.ITAL.,v.131.誰にも心を動かされない様子で Dative of the Object For Which(記述、様態の与格). 356.Certain verbs take the Dative of the Object For Which(to what end),and often at the same time a Dative of the Personal Object For Whom,or To Whom. Nemini meus adventus labori aut sumptui fuit,C.,Verr.,1.6,16;to no one was my arrival a burden or an expense. Virtus sola neque datur dono neque accipitur,S.,Iug.,85,38;virtue alone is neither given nor taken as a present. Habere quaestui rem publicam turpe est,C.,Off.,ii.,22,77;it is base to have the state for one's exchequer(資金、利益). REMARKS.1.Noteworthy is the legal phrase cui bono? to whom is it for an advantage ? = who is advantaged ? 2.In the classical times the principal verbs in this construction are esse,dare,ducere,habere,vertere, and a few others which occur less frequently.Later Latin extends the usage to many other verbs,and especially to Gerundive constructions.Dare is used principally in the phrase dono dare. 3.The Double Dative is found principally with esse,but occasionally with other verbs. Here there seems to have been a tendency,mainly post-Ciceronian,to use the predicative Nom.instead of the Dative.Interesting sometimes is the shift in usage;thus, CICERO says est turpitudo,baseness NEPOS, fuit turpitudini. NOTES.1.In the same category,but with the idea of finality more clearly indicated,are the agricultural usages, alimento serere,sow for food, conditui legere;(Col.2,22,4).漬物にする the medical, remedio adhibere;apply as a remedy the military terms, praesidio,auxilio,mittere,esse,etc.send for a help 2.With LIVY we notice the great extension of this Dat.with verbs of seeking,choosing,etc.,where classical Latin would prefer some other construction.So locum insidiis(insidiarum is classical) circumspectare Poenus coepit,L.,xxi.53,11.(ポエニ人は待ち伏せするための場所を探し始めた) TACITUS goes furthest in such usages.CAESAR,however,shows a few instances(B.G.,1.30,8). 3.The Final Dative with intrans.verbs is military and rare.So receptui canere,to sound a retreat, is found first in CAES.,B.G.,vii.47.SALLUST shows a few examples.The Dat.,with similar substantives,is an extension,and is very rare.CICERO,Ph.,xiii.7,15,says receptui signum. [228 DATIVE.] 4.The origin of this usage may have been mercantile(Key).In English we treat Profit and Loss as persons : Quem fors dierum cumque dabit lucro appone,H.,O.,1.9,14;"Every day that Fate shall give,set down to Profit." (運がもたらす日々は何でも利益として書きとめよ) On the Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive in a similar sense,see 429. Dative with Derivative Substantives. 357.A few derivative substantives take the Dative of their primitives : Iustitia est obtemperatio legibus,C.,Leg.,1.15,42;justice is obedience to the laws. NOTE.We find a few examples in PLAUTCTS,several in CICEEO,and only sporadically elsewhere.Usually the verbal force is very prominent in the substantives;as,insidias consuli maturare,S,C.,32,2. Local Dative. 358.The Dative is used in poetry to denote the place whither. Karthagini iam non ego nuntios mittam superbos,H.,O.,iv.4,69; to Carthage no more shall I send haughty tidings. Iam satis terris nivis atque dirae grandinis misit pater, H.,O.,1.2,1;full,full enough of snow and dire hail the Sire(父) hath sent the Land. NOTES.1.This construction begins with Accrtrs,and is not uncommon in the Augustan poets.No examples are cited from PLACTUS or TERENCE,hence the inference is fair that it was not a colloquialism.As a poetical construction it seems to have sprung from personification. 2.Occasionally the substantive is also thus construed;as in the facilis descensua Averno of VERGIL(A.,vi.126). The extreme is reached when the Dative follows ire and the like : It caelo clamorque virum clangorque tubarum,V.,A.,xi.192;mounts to High Heaven warriors'shout and trumpets' blare. 3.Tendere manus has a few times,even in CICERO and CAESAR,the Dat.of the person,which is sometimes referred to this head.But the usual construction is ad. Matres familiae Romanis de muro manus tendebant,CAES.,B.G.,vii.48. Dative with Adjectives. 359.Adjectives of Likeness,Fitness,Friendiiness,Nearness,and the like,with their opposites,take the Dative : Canis similis lupo est,C.,N.D.,1.35,97;the dog is like unto the wolf. Castris idoneus locus,CAES.,B.G.,vi.10,2;a place suitable for a camp. Utile est rei publicae nobiles homines esse dignos maioribus suis,C.,Sest.,9,21;it is to the advantage of the state that men of rank should be worthy of their ancestors. Vir mihi amicissimus,Q.Fabricius,C..Sest.,35,75;my very great friend, Proxumus sum egomet mihi,TER.,And.,636;myself am nearest to me. Omni aetati mors est communis,Cf.C.,Cat.M.,19,68;death is common to every time of life. [DATIVE.229] (Testis) id dicit quod illi causae maxime eat alienum,C.,Caec.,g,24;the witness says what is especially damaging to that case(side). REMARKS.1.Many adjectives which belong to this class are used also as substantives,and as such are construed with the Genitive : amicus,friend; affinis,connection; aequalis,contemporary; alienus (rare),foreign,strange; cognatus,kinsman; communis,common; contrarius,opposite; par,match; proprius, peculiaris,own,peculiar; similis,like(" we ne'er shall look upon his like again "),especially of gods and men,and regularly with personal pronouns,and in early Latin; sacer,set apart,sacred; superstes(rare),survivor. Comparatives have regularly the Dative;Superlatives vary. [Ille],cuius paucos pares haec civitas tulit,C.,Pis.,4,8;(he was) a man few of whose peers the state hath borne. Utinam te non solum vitae,sed etiam dignitatis meae superstitem reliquissem, C.,Q.F.,1.3,1;would that I had left thee survivor not only of my life but also of my position. 2.The object toward which is expressed by the Acc.with in,erga,adversus : Manlius(fuit) severus in filium,C.,Off.,iii.31,112;Manlius was severe toward his son. Me esse scit sese erga benivolum,PL.,Capt.,350;he knows that I am kindly disposed toward him. Vir adversus merita Caesaris ingratissimus,Cf.VELL.,ii.69,1;a man most ungrateful towards Caesar's services(to him). 3.The object for which may be expressed by the Acc.with ad,to : Homo ad nullam rem utilis,C.,Off.,iii.6,29;a good-for-nothing fellow. This is the more common construction with adjectives of Fitness. NOTES.1. Propior,nearer, proximus,next, are also construed(like prope,near) occasionally with the Acc.(principally by CAESAR,SALLUST,LIVY),the adverbial forms also with the Abl.with ab,off: Crassus proximus mare Oceanum hiemarat,CAES.,B.G.,iii.7,2;Crassus had wintered next the ocean. Id propius fidem est,L.,11.41,11;that is nearer belief,i.e.,more likely. 2. Alienus,foreign,strange, is also construed with the Abl.,with or without ab(a);so commonly absonus. Homo sum,humani nil a me alienum puto,TER.,Heaut.,77;I am a man,and nothing that pertains to man do I consider foreign to me. 3. Iunctus,coniuuctus,joined, are also construed frequently with cum.and the Abl.; sometimes with the Abl.only : improbitas scelere iuncta,C.,Or.,ii.58,237. 4. Similis is said to be used with the Gen.when the likeness is general and comprehensive;with the Dat.when it is conditional or partial;hence,in classical prose,always verl simile,LIVY being the first to say vfiro simile. 5. Adversus,opponent, seems to be construed with the Gen.once in SALLUST(C.,52,7) and once in QUINTILIAN(xii.i,2). Invidus,envious,is cited with the Gen.once in CICERO(Flac.,i,2),then not till late Latin;with the Dat.it is poetical;otherwise the possessive pronoun is used,as tui invidi(C.,Fam.,1.4,2). Pronus,inclined,with the Dat.,occurs in SALLUST(Iug.,114,2),then not till TACITUS;the usual construction is ad.Intentus,intent upon,has Abl.in SALLUST(C.,a,9,etc.); [230 GENITIVE.] otherwise Dat.,or ad(in) with Acc.Notice the use of aversus with Dat.in TAC.,Ann.,1.66,2;some other examples are doubtful. 6.In poetry,idem,(he same,is often construed after Greek analogy,with the Dative. Invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti,H..A.P,467;he who saves a man('s life) against his will does the same thing as one who kills him(as if he had killed him). 1.Adverbs of similar meaning sometimes take the Dative : Congruenter naturae convenienterque vivere,C.,Fin.,iii.7,26. II.Internal Change. Genitive. 360.1.The Genitive Case is the Case of the Complement,and is akin to the Adjective,with which it is often parallel.It is the substantive form of the Specific Characteristic. The chief English representatives of the Genitive are : (a) The Possessive case : Domus regis,the king's palace. (b) The Objective case with of : Domus regis,the palace of the king. (c) Substantives used as adjectives or in composition : Arbor abietis,fir-tree. REMARKS.1.Other prepositions than of are not unfrequently used,especially with the Objective Genitive.(363,R.1.) Patriae quis exsul se quoque fugit ? H.,O.,ii.16,19;what exile FROM his country ever fled himself as well ? Boiorum triumphi spem collegae reliquit,L.,xxxiii.37,10;he left the hope of a triumph OVER the Boii to his colleague. Via mortis may be considered the way(mode) of death or the deathpath,instead of via ad mortem(L.,XLIV.4,14). 2.An abstract substantive with the Gen.is often to be translated as an attribute : Verni temporis suavitas,C.,Cat.M.,19,70;the sweet spring-time. Fontium gelidae perennitates,C.,N.D.,ii.39,98;cool springs that never fail. Compare S.,C.,8,3. And,on the other hand,the predicative attribute is often to be translated as an abstract substantive with of : Ante Romam conditam,before the founding of Rome.(325,R.3.) Notice also hic metus,this fear = fear of this,and kindred expressions : Quam similitudinem = cuius rei similitudinem,C.,N.D.,ii.10,27. 2.The Genitive is employed : I.and II.Chiefly as the complement of Substantives and Adjectives. III.Occasionally as the complement of Verbs. NOTE.As the Accusative forms a complex with the verb,so the Genitive forms a complex with the Substantive or equivalent.No logical distribution can be wholly satisfactory,and the following arrangement has regard to convenience. [GENITIVE.231] I.GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES. Adnominal Genitive. Appositive Genitive,or Genitive of Specification. 361.The Genitive is sometimes used to specify the contents of generic words instead of Apposition in the same case;there are two varieties : 1.Appositional Genitive.Genitive after such words as, vox,expression; nomen,name,noun; verbum,word,verb; res,thing,etc. Nomen amicitiae,C.,Fin.,ii.24,78;the name friendship. 2.Epexegetical Genitive.Genitive after such words as genus,class; vitium,vice; culpa,fault,etc. [Virtutes] continentiae,gravitatis,iustitiae,fidei,C.,Mur.,10,23;the virtues of self-control,earnestness,justice,honour. NOTES -1.The former variety is very rare in CICERO,the latter much more common.A special variety is the use of the Gen.after such words as urbs,oppidum,flumen,etc. This is not found in PLAUTUS and TERENCE,occurs perhaps but once in CICERO,and seems to be confined to a few cases in poetry and later prose.Often personification is at work;thus,in fons Timavi(V.,A.,1.244), Timavus is a river god,and fons is not equal to Timavus. 2.Examples like arbor abietis(L.,xxiv.3,4),fir-tree; arbor fici(Cf.C.,Flac.,17,41),fig-tree,etc., occur only here and there. 3.Colloquial,and probably belonging here,are: scelus viri(PL.,M.G.,1434),a scoundrel of a man; flagitium hominis(PL.,Asin.,473),a scamp of a fellow,and the like. Quaedam pestes hominum,C.,Fam.,v.8,2;certain pestilent fellows. Possessive Genitive,or Genitive of Property. 362.The Possessive Genitive is the substantive form of an adjective attribute with which it is often parallel;it is used only of the Third Person. Domus regis = domus regia,the palace of the king,the king's palace = the royal palace. REMARKS.1.The Possession in the First and Second Person(and in the Reflexive) is indicated by the Possessive Pronouns(until after LIVY): amicus meus,a friend of mine; gladius tuus,a sword of thine. But when omnium is added,vestrum and nostrum are used; aris et focis omnium nostrum inimicus,C.,Ph.,xi.4,10.(emeny to hearth and home of us all) Sometimes the adjective form is preferred also in the Third Person : canis alienus,a strange dog,another man's dog; filius erilis,master's son. 2.The attention of the student is called to the variety of forms which possession may take. Statua Myronis,Myron's statue,may mean: 1.A statue which Myron owns; 2.Which Myron has made; 3.Which represents Myron. 3.Sometimes the governing word is omitted,where it can be easily [232 GENITIVE.] supplied,so especially aedes or templum,after ad, and less often after other prepositions : Pecunia utinam ad Opis maneret,C.,Ph.,1.7,17; would that the money were still at Ops's(temple). NOTES.1.The Family Genitive,as Hasdrubal Gisgonis(L.,xxviii.,12,13),Gisgo's Hasdrubal,Hasdrubal,Gisgo's son(as it were,Hasdrubal O'Gisgo), Hectoris Andromache(V.,.4.,iii.319),Hector's(wife) Andromache, is found twice only in CICERO,otherwise it is poetical and post-Ciceronian.Servos,however,is regularly omitted; Flaccus Claudi,Flaccus,Claudius' slave. 2.The Chorographic(=geographic) Genitive is rare and post-Ciceronian : Rex Chalcidem Euboeae venit,L.,xxvii.30,7; the king came to Chalcis of(in) Euboea. The Chorographic Genitive is not found with persons.Here an adjective or a prepositional phrase is necessary : Thales Milesius,or ex Mileto,Thales of Miletus. Active and Passive Genitive. 363.When the substantive on which the Genitive depends contains the idea of an action(nomen actionis),the possession may be active or passive.Hence the division into 1.The Active or Subjective Genitive : amor Dei,the love of God,the love which God feels(God loves); patriae beneficia,the benefits of(conferred by) one's country(376,R.2). 2.Passive or Objective Genitive : amor Dei,love of God,love toward God(God is loved). REMARKS.1.The English form in of is used either actively or passively : the love of women.Hence,to avoid ambiguity,other prepositions than of are often substituted for the Passive Genitive,such as for,toward,and the like.So,also,sometimes in Latin,especially in LIVY,and later Historians generally : Voluntas Servilii erga Caesarem,Cf.C.,Q.F.,iii.1.6,26;the goodwill of Servilius toward Caesar. Odium in bonos inveteratum,C.,Vat.,3,6;deep-seated hate toward the conservatives(=bonos), 2.Both Genitives may be connected with the same substantive : Veteres Helvetiorum iniuriae populi Romani,Cf.CAES.,B.G.,1.30,2; the ancient injuries of the Roman people by the Helvetians. NOTE.The use of the Genitive with substantives whose corresponding verbs take other cases than the Accusative,gradually increases in Latin,beginning with the earliest times,but it is not very common in the classical language. 364.The Subjective Genitive,like the Possessive,is used only of the Third Person.In the First and Second Persons the possessive pronoun is used,thus showing the close relationship of Agent and Possessor. Amor meus,my love(the love which I feel). Desiderium tuum,your longing(the longing which you feel). [GENITIVE.233] Additional attributives are put in the Genitive(321,R.2): Iuravi hanc urbem mea unius opera salvam esse,C.,Pis.,3,6;I swore that this city owed its salvation to my exertions alone. REMARK.Nostrum and vestrum are used as Partitive Genitives: Magna pars nostrum,a great part of us; uterque vestrum,either(both) of you. Nostri melior pars means the better part of our being,our better part. With omnium,the forms nostrum and vestrum must be used(362,R.i). NOTES.1.Occasionally,however,in Latin,as in English,the Gen.is used instead of the possessive pronoun; so CICERO says splendor vestrum(Att,vii.13 a,3), and consensus vestrum(Ph.,v.i,2), and one or two others;but other examples are very rare until after TACITUS,when the Singular forms,after the example of OVID(M.,1.30),become not uncommon.See 304,3,N.1." For the life of me " = " for my life." 2.On the other hand the Genitives of the personal pronouns are used regularly as the Objective Genitive : Amor mei,love to me. Desiderium tui,longing for thee. Memoria nostri,memory of us(our memory). Occasionally the possessive pronoun is used even here;see 304,2,N.2,and compare "The deep damnation of his taking off."(Shakespeare"Machbeth" =the injustice of his murder.彼を殺すこと) Genitive of Quality. 365.The Genitive of Quality must always have an adjective or its equivalent. Vir magnae auctoritatis,CAES.,B.G.,v.35,6; a man of great influence. Homo nihili(= nullius pretii),PL.,B.,1188;a fellow of no account. Tridui via,CAES.,B.G.,I.38,1; a three days'journey. Non multi cibi hospitem accipies,multi ioci,C.,Fam.,ix.26,4; you will receive a guest who is a small eater but a great joker. REMARKS.1.The Genitive of Quality,like the adjective,is not used with a proper name.Exceptions are very rare in classical Latin (CAES.,B.G.,v.35,6,Quintus Lucanius,eiusdem ordinis,同じ階級に属するクイントゥス・ルカニウス). But later they are more common. 2.The Genitive of Quality is less common than the Ablative,being used chiefly of the essentials.The Genitive always of Number,Measure,Time,Space;the Ablative always of externals,so of parts of the body.Often the use seems indifferent.(400.) NOTE.The omission of the adjective is not found before APULEIUS,in whom,as in English,"a man of influence" may be for "a man of great influence". Genitive as a Predicate. 366.The Genitives of Possession and Quality may be used as Predicates. Hic versus Plauti non est,hic est,C.,Fam.,ix.16,4; this verse is not by Plautus,this is .(この詩行はプラウトゥスのものではない、これがそうだ) [234 GENITIVE.] Omnia quae mulieris fuerunt,viri fiunt dotis nomine,C.,Top.,iv.23; everything that was the woman's becomes the husband's under the title of dowry. Virtus tantarum virium est ut se ipsa tueatur,C.,Tusc.,v.1,2; virtue is of such strength as to be her own protector.(美徳は非常に力があるので自分自身を守ることができる) REMARKS.1.The Possession appears in a variety of forms,and takes a variety of translations : Huius ero vivus,mortuus huius ero,PROP.,ii.15,35; hers I shall be,living; dead,hers I shall be.(生きている間、私は彼女のものであり、死んでからも私は彼女のものである) Nolae senatus Romanorum,plebs Hannibalis erat,L.,xxiii39,7; at Nola the senate was(on the side) of the Romans,the common folk(on) Hannibal's. Damnatio est iudicum,poena legis,C.,Sull.,22,63; condemning is the judges'(business),punishment the law's. Est animi ingenui cui multum debeas eidem plurimum velle debere, C.,Fam.,ii.6,2;it shows the feeling of a gentleman to be willing to owe very much to him to whom you already owe much.(義理ある人間に対してもっと大きな義理を感じたいと思うのは立派な人間の志である) Pauperis est numerare pecus,Ov.,M.,xiii.823;'tis only the poor man that counts his flock('tis the mark of a poor man to count the flock)(自分の羊を数えるのは貧乏人のすることだ). Observe the special variety,"Genitivus Auctoris" : Is [Hercules] dicebatur esse Myronis,C.,Verr.,iv.3,5;that(statue of) Hercules was said to be Myron's(work),by Myron.(あのヘラクレスはミュロの作である) So also with facere,to make(cause to be),which is common in LIVY especially : Romanae dicionis facere,L.,xxi.60,3;to bring under the Roman sway.(ローマの支配下に置く。dicio 支配) Summum imperium in orbe terrarum Macedonum fecerant,L.,XLV.7,3; the paramount authority of the world they had brought(into the hands) of the Macedonians. 2.For the personal representative of a quality,the quality itself may be used sometimes with but little difference,as : stultitiae est,it is the part of folly; stulti est,it is the part of a fool. So,too, stultum est,it is foolish. But when the adj.is of the Third Declension,the neuter should not be used,except in combination with an adj.of the Second. Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habitum,C.,Fam.,iv.9,2;to yield to the pressure of the times has always been held wise. Pigrum et iners videtur sudore adquirere quod possis sanguine parare, TAC.,G.,14,17;it is thought slow and spiritless to acquire by sweat what you can get by blood. Some combinations become phraseological,as : consuetudinis,moris est(the latter post-classical),it is the custom. 3.The same methods of translation apply to the Possessive Pronoun in the Predicate("Vengeance is mine") : meum est,it is my property,business,way. Non est mentiri meum,TER.,Heaut.,549;lying is not my way(I do not lie). His tantis in rebus est tuum videre,quid agatur,C.,Mur.,38,83;in this important crisis it is your business to see what is to be done. [GENITIVE.235] Partitive Genitive. 367.The Partitive Genitive stands for the Whole to which a Part belongs.It is therefore but an extension of the Possessive Genitive.It may be used with any word that involves partition,and has the following varieties(368-372) : 368.The Partitive Genitive is used with substantives of Quantity,Number,Weight. Maximus vini numerus fuit,permagnum pondus argenti,C.,Ph.,ii.27,66;there was a large amount of wine,an enormous mass of silver. In jugero Leontini agri medimnum tritici seritur,C.Verr.,iii.47,112;on a juger of the Leontine territory a medimnus of wheat is sown. Campanorum alam,quingentos fere equites excedere acie iubet,L.,x.29,2;he orders a squadron of Campanians,about 500 horsemen,to leave the line. REMARK.This is sometimes called the Oenitivus Generis,Whether the conception be partitive or not,depends on circumstances. Medimnus tritici,a medimnus of wheat,may be a medimnus of WHEAT(Genitivus Generis) or a MEDIMNUS of wheat(Partitive). NOTE.The reversed construction is occasionally found. Sex dies ad eam rem conficiendam spatii postulant,CAES.,B.C.,1.3,6,instead of spatium sex dierum. 369.The Partitive Genitive is used with the Neuter Singular of the following and kindred words,but only in the Nominative or Accusative. tantum,so much, multum,much, paulum,little, satis,enough, hoc,this, quantum,as(how much), plus,more, minus,less, parum,too little, id,illud,istud,that, aliquantum,somewhat, plurimum,most, minimum,least, nihil,nothing, idem,the same, quod and quid,which and what ? with their compounds. Quod in rebus honestis operae curaeque ponetur,id iure laudabitur,C., Off.,1.6,19;what(of) effort and pains shall be bestowed on reputable deeds,will receive a just recompense of praise. is locus ab omni turba id temporis(336,N.2) vacuus [erat],C.,Fin.,v.i,1;that place was at that (point of) time free from anything like a crowd. Satis eloquentiae,sapientiae parum,S.,C.,5,4;enough(of) eloquence,of wisdom too little. REMARKS.1.Neuter adjectives of the Second Declension can be treated as substantives in the Gen.; not so adjectives of the Third,except in combination with adjectives of the Second,but here usually the Second Declension adjective is attracted : aliquid bonum,or boni,something good; aliquid memorabile,something memorable; aliquid boni et memorabilia,something good and memorable(better aliquid bonum et memorabile). [236 GENITIVE.] Quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum? C.,Tusc.,1.21,49 (204,n.3). 2.A familiar phrase is : Nihil reliqui facere. 1.To leave nothing (not a thing). 2.(Occasionally),to leave nothing undone. NOTES.1.The conception is often not so much partitive as characteristic.So Quodcumque hoc regni,V.,A.,1.78;this realm,what(little) there is of it(what little realm I have). Perhaps,too,such combinations as flagitium hominis may be classed under this head.See 361,N.3. 2.The partitive construction,with a preposition,is not found in CICERO or CAESAR,but begins with SALLUST : Ad id loci,S.,C.,45,3; ad id locorum,S.,Iug.,63,6. 370.The Partitive Genitive is used with numerals both general and special. Special : Centum militum,a hundred(of the) soldiers,a hundred(of) soldiers. (Centum milites,a,the hundred soldiers.) Quintus regum,the fifth(of the) Tcing(s). (Quintus rex,the fifth king.) General : Multi militum,many of the soldiers,many soldiers. (Multi milites,many soldiers.) REMARKS.1.The English language commonly omits the partition,unless it is especially emphatic : Multi civium adsunt,many CITIZENS are present. Multi cives adsunt,MANY are the citizens present. 2.When all are embraced,there is no partition in Latin : (Nos) trecenti coniuravimus,L.,ii.12,15;three hundred of us have bound ourselves by an oath. Volnera quae circum plurima muros accepit patrios,V.,A.,ii.277; wounds which he received in great numbers before his country's walls. Qui omnes,all of whom. Quot estis ? how many are(there of) you ? So always quot,tot,totidem. Here the English language familiarly employs the partition.Exceptions are very rare. 3.On mille and milia,see 293.On prepositions with numerals,see 372,R.2. 371.The Partitive Genitive is used with Pronouns. Ii militum,those(of the) soldiers. Ii milites,those soldiers. Illi Graecorum,those(of the) Greeks. Fidenatium qui supersunt.ad urbem Fidenas tendunt,L.,iv.33,10;th surviving Fidenates take their way to the city of Fidenae. [GENITIVE.237] REMARKS.1.Uterque,either(both),is commonly used as an adjective with substantives : uterque consul,either consul = both consuls; as a substantive with pronouns,unless a substantive is also used : uterque horum,both of these;but uterque ille dux. So,too,with relatives in the neuter,and with Plural forms of uterque,concord is the rule. Compare uterque nostrum,C.,Sull.,4,13, with utrique nos,C.,Fam.,xi.20,3.See 292. 2.On the use of prepositions instead of the Genitive,see 372,R.2. NOTE.The use of the relative with the Genitive is characteristic of LIVY. 372.The Partitive Genitive is used with Comparatives and Superlatives : Prior horum in proelio cecidit,NEP.,xxi.i,2;the former of these fell in an engagement. Indus est omnium fluminum maximus,C.,N.D.,ii.52,130(211,R.2). REMARKS.1.When there are only two,the comparative exhausts the degrees of comparison(300). 2.Instead of the Partitive Genitive with Numerals,Pronouns,Comparatives,and Superlatives,the Abl.may be employed with ex,out of, de,from(especially with proper names and singulars), in,among(rare), or the Acc.with inter,among,apud : Gallus provocat unum ex Romanis,the Gaul challenges one of the Romans; unus de multis,one of the many (the masses); Croesus inter reges opulentissimus,Croesus,wealthiest of kings. With unus,ex or de is the more common construction,except that when unus is first in a series,the Gen.is common. 3.On the concord of the Superlative see 211,R.2. NOTES.1.The Partitive Genitive with positives is occasional in poetry;in prose it begins with LIVY and becomes more common later. Sequimur te,sancte deorum,V.,A.,iv.576;we follow thee,holy deity. Canum degeneres(caudam) sub alvom flectunt,PLIN.,N.H.,XI.,50,265; currish dogs curl the tail up under the belly. 2.Substantival neuters,with no idea of quantity,were rarely followed by the Gen.in early Latin.CICERO shows a few cases of Plurals of superlatives,and one case of a Plural of a comparative in this construction : in interiora aedium Sullae (Att.iv.,3,8). CAESAR shows one case of a positive : in occultis ac reconditis templi(B.C.,iii.105,5). SALLUST shows the first case of the Singular : in praerupti montis extremo(Iug.,37,4). Then the usage extends and becomes common,especially in TACITUS.In the poets it begins with LUCRETIUS. Ardua dum metuunt amittunt vera viai(29,N.2=via G),LUCR.,1.660;the while they fear the steeper road,they miss the true. So amara curarum,H.,O.,iv.12,19; bitter elements of cares,bitter cares; strata viarum,V.,A.,1.422 = stratae viae,the paved streets. 3.The Partitive Genitive is also used with Adverbs of Quantity,Place,Extent : armorum adfatim,L.,xxvii.17,7;abundance of arms; ubi terrarum,gentium? where in the world ?(Very late Latin, tum temporis,at that time.) The usage with huc,eo,as huc,eo arrogantiae processit,he got to this,that pitch of presumption, is a colloquialism,which begins with SALLUST,but is not found in CICERO or CAESAR. [238 GENITIVE.] Notice especially the phrase : quod(or quoad) gius(facere) possum,as far as I can do so: C.,Fam.,iii.2,2;Att.,xi.12,4;I.,ii.,6,20. 4.The Partitive Genitive with proper names is rare,and mostly confined to LIVY : Consulum Sulpicius in dextro Poetelius in laevo cornu consistunt,L.,ix.27,8. 5.The Partitive Genitive as a Predicate is Greekish : Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium,H,O.,iii.,13,13;thou too shalt count among the famous fountains. Genitive with Prepositional Substantives. 373.Causa,gratia,ergo,and instar are construed with the Genitive. [Sophistae] quaestus causa philosophabantur,C.,Ac.,ii.23,72;the professors of wisdom dealt in philosophy for the sake of gain. Tu me amoris magis quam honoris servavisti gratia,ENN.,F.,287(M.); thou didst save me more for love's(sake) than(thou didst) for honour's sake. Virtutis ergo,C.,Opt.Gen.,7,19; on account of valor. Instar montis equus,V.,A.,ii.15;a horse the bigness of a mountain. Plato mihi unus instar est omnium,C.,Br.,51,191;Plato by himself is in my eyes worth them all. REMARKS.1.Causa and gratia,for the sake,commonly follow the Gen.in classical Latin and also in the Jurists.In LIVY and later they often precede.Ergo,on account,belongs especially to early Latin,except in formulae and laws,and follows its Genitive.It is rare in the poets.Instar is probably a fossilised Infinitive(Instare),meaning " the equivalent," whether of size or value. 2.Except for special reasons causa takes the possessive pronoun in agreement,rather than the personal pronoun in the Genitive;more rarely gratia : Vestra reique publicae causa,C.,Verr.,v.68,173;for your sake and that of the commonwealth. But in antithesis, multa quae nostri causa numquam faceremus,facimus causa amicorum! C.,Lael.,16,57(disputed). II.GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 374.Adjectives of Fulness,of Participation,and of Power,of Knowledge and Ignorance,of Desire and Disgust,take the Genitive. Plenus rimarum,TER.,Eun.,105;full of chinks("a leaky vessel"). Particeps consilil,C.,Sull.,4,12;a sharer in the plan. Mentis compos,C.,Ph.,ii.38,97; in possession of(one's) mind. Multarum rerum peritus,C.,Font.,ii,25;versed in many things. Cupidus pecuniae,Cf.C.,Verr.,1.3,8;grasping after money. Fastidiosus Latinarum(litterarum),C.,Br.,70,247;too dainty for Latin. Omnium rerum inscius,C.,Br.,85,292;a universal ignoramus.全てに無知な人 Cur non ut plenus vitae conviva recedis ? LUCR.,iii.938(273). Sitque memor nostri necne,referte mihi,Ov.,Tr.,IV.3,10(204,N.7). [GENITIVE.239] Conscia mens recti Famae mendacia risit,Ov.,F.,IV.311 (330,R.). Agricolam laudat iuris legumque peritus,H.,S.,1.i,9; the husbandman('s lot) is praised by the counsel learned in the law. Omnes immemorem beneficii oderunt,C.,Off.,ii.18,63;all hate a man who has no memory for kindness. (Bestiae) sunt rationis et orationis expertes,C.,Off.,1.16,50;beasts are devoid of reason and speech(lack discourse of reason). Omnia plena consiliorum,inania verborum videmus,C.,Or.,1.9,37; we see a world that is full of wise measures,void of eloquence. Gallia frugum fertilis fuit,L.,v.34,2; Gaul was productive of grain. NOTES.1.Of adjectives of Fulness,with the Gen.,only plenus, repletus, inops, and inanis are classical and common;single instances are found of liberalis, profusus, in SALLUST(C.,7,6;5,4),and ieiunus occurs once in CICERO.PLAUTUS also uses onustus and prodigus. Poets and later prose writers are free. Plenus occurs very rarely with the Abl.in CICERO and CAESAR,more often in LIVY. Refertus is used by CICERO usually with the Abl.of the Thing and with the Gen.of the Person. 2.Participation : Classical are particeps, expers, censors, with some adjectives expressing guilt,as manifestus(archaic), affinis, reus. Of these particeps takes also the Dat.in post-classical Latin,and expers has also the Abl.(not classical) from PLAUTUS on.(See S.,C.,33,1.) Affinis has the Dat.in LIVY,in local sense also in CICERO; reus takes Abl.or de. 3.Power: Compos alone is classical,and is occasionally found with Abl.in SALLUST,VERGIL,LIVY. Potens is found in PLAUTUS,the poets,and post-classical prose; impos in PLAUTUS,and then not until SENECA. 4.Knowledge and Ignorance : Classical are some eighteen.Of these peritus has also Abl.,and rarely ad ; insuetus takes also Dat.as well as de; prudens has also ad; rudis has Abl.with in. more often than the Gen.in CICERO,but also ad.Anteclassical Latin shows a few more adjectives. 5.Desire and Disgust : Classical are avidus, cupidus, fastidiosus, studiosus. Of these avidus has also in with Acc.and with Abl.; studiosus has Dat.in PLAUTUS (M.Q.,801);single examples are cited with ad and in.Fastidiosus occurs but once in CICERO(see above);see H.,O.,iii.i,37. 6.In later Latin and in the poets almost all adjectives that denote an affection of the mind take a Gen.of the Thing to which the affection refers,where model prose requires the Abl.or a preposition: consilii ambiguus,TAC.,H.,iv.21;doubtful of purpose. Ingratus salutis,V.,A.,x.665. The analogy of these adjectives is followed by others,so that the Gen.becomes a complement to the adjective,just as it is to the corresponding substantive. Integer vitae,H.,O.,1.22,1;spotless of life; like integritas vitae.(Compare fama et fortunis integer,S.,H.,ii.41,5 D;in fame and fortunes intact.) 7.The seat of the feeling is also put in the Gen.,chiefly with animi and ingenii (which were probably Locatives originally). Aeger animi,L.,1.58,9;sick at heart,heartsick. Audax ingenil,STAT.,S.,iii.2,64;daring of disposition. The Pl.is animis. 8.The Gen.with adjectives involving Separation instead of the Abl.(390,3) begins with the Augustan poets;though SALLUST shows nudus and vacuus(Iug.,79,6;90,1); liber laborum,H.,A.P.,212. 9.Classical Latin uses certus with Gen.only in the phrase certiorem facere,to inform, which has also de (always in CAESAR). 10. Dignus,worthy, and indignus,unworthy, with Gen.are poetical and rare. 11.On alinus,strange,see 359,N.2.On aequalis, communis, conscius, contrarius, par, proprius, similis, superstes, and the like,see 359,R.1. [240 GENITIVE.] Genitive with Verbals. 375.Some Present Participles take the Genitive when they lose their verbal nature;and so occasionally do verbals in -ax in poetry and later prose. (Epaminondas) erat adeo veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur, NEP.,xv.3,1;Epaminondas was so careful(such a lover) of the truth as not to tell lies even in jest. Omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset,TAC.,H.,1.49;by general consent capable of empire,had he not become emperor. NOTES.1.The participle is transient;the adjective permanent.The simple test is the substitution of the relative and the verb : amans(participle),loving(who is loving); amans(adjective),fond,(substantive),lover; patiens(participle),bearing (who is bearing); patiens(adjective),enduring,(substantive),a sufferer. 2.Ante-classical Latin shows only amans, cupiens, concupiens, fugitans, gerens, persequens, sciens, temperans. CICERO carries the usage very far,and it is characteristic of his style.CAESAR,on the other hand,has very few cases(B.C.,1.69,3). CICERO also shows the first case of a Gen.after a compared participle. Sumus natura appetentissimi honestatis,C.,Tusc.,ii.24,58. These participles can also revert to the verbal constructions. 3.Of verbals with the Gen.,PLAUTUS shows one example : mendax(Asin.,855); CICERO perhaps one : rapax(Lael.,14,50). The usage in later Latin and the poets is confined at most to about one dozen verbals. III.GENITIVE WITH VERBS. Genitive with Verbs of Memory. 376.Verbs of Reminding,Remembering,and Forgetting,take the Genitive. Te veteris amicitiae commonefecit,[C.] ad Her.,iv.24,33;he reminded you of your old friendship. Est proprium stultitiae aliorum vitia cernere,oblivisci suorum, C.,Tusc.,iii.30,73; the fact is,it shows a fool to have keen eyes for the faults of others,to forget one's own. Ipse iubet mortis te meminisse deus,MART.,ii.59; a god himself bids you remember death. REMARKS.1.Verbs of Reminding take more often the Abl.with de(so regularly in CICERO),and the Acc.neut.of a pronoun or Numeral adjective.TACITUS alone uses monere with the Gen.(Ann.,1.67,1). Oro ut Terentiani moneatis de testaments,C.,Att.,xi.16,5; I beg you to put Terentia in mind of the will. Discipulos id unum moneo,QUINT.,ii.9,1(333,i). 2.Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting also take the Acc.,especially of Things; [GENITIVE.241] Haec olim meminisse iuvabit,V.,A.,1.203;to remember these things one day will give us pleasure. Qui sunt boni cives,nisi qui patriae beneficia meminerunt ? C.,Planc.,33,80;who are good citizens except those who remember the benefits conferred by their country ? Oblivisci nihil soles nisi iniurias,C.,Lig.,12,35;you are wont to forget nothing except injuries. Eecordor(literally = I bring to heart,to mind) is construed with the Acc.of the Thing,except in three passages from CICERO;de is found with Persons. Et vocem Anchisae magni voltumque recordor,V.,A.,viii.156;and I recall(call to mind) the voice and countenance of Anchises the Great. Memini,I bear in mind,I(am old enough to) remember,takes the Accusative : [Antipatrum] tu probe meministi,C.,Or.,iii.50,194;you remember Antipater very well. 3. Venit mihi in mentem,it comes into(up to) my mind, may be construed impersonally with the Gen.,or personally with a subject;the latter by CICERO only when the subject is a neuter pronoun. Venit mihi Platonis in mentem,C.,Fin.,v.i,2;Plato rises before my mind's eye. Genitive with Verbs of Emotion. 377. Misereor,I pity, takes the Genitive,and miseret,it moves to pity, paenitet,it repents, piget,it irks, pudet,it makes ashamed, taedet and pertaesum est,it tires, take the Accusative of the Person Who Feels,and the Genitive of the Exciting Cause. Miseremini sociorum,C.,Verr.,1.28,72;pity your allies ! Suae quemque fortunae paenitet,C.,Fam.,vi.i,1;each man is discontented with his lot. Me non solum piget stultitiae meae,sed etiam pudet,C.,Dom.,n,29;I am not only fretted at my folly,but actually ashamed of it. REMARKS.1.Pudet is also used with the Gen.of the Person whose Presence excites the shame : Pudet deorum hominumque,L.,iii.19,7;it is a shame in the sight of gods and men. 2.These Impersonals can also have a subject,chiefly a Demonstrative or Relative pronoun : Non te haec pudent? TER.,Ad.,754;do not these things put you to the blush ? 3.Other constructions follow from general rules.So the Inf.(422) and quod(542). Non me vixisse paenitet (生きてきたことに私は悔いはない), C.,Cat.M.,23,84(540). Quintum paenitet quod animum tuum offendit,Cf.C.,Att.,xi.13,2; Quintus is sorry that he has wounded your feelings. [242 GENITIVE.] NOTES.1.With the same construction are found misereo(early Latin),misereco (poetical),dispudet(early Latin),distaedet(early Latin),vereor(mostly in early Latin),and a few others. 2.Miserari and commiserari,to pity,commiserate,take Acc.until very late Latin. Genitive with Judicial Verbs. The Genitive with Judicial Verbs belongs to the same category as the Genitive with Verbs of Rating,both being extensions of the Genitive of Quality. 378.Verbs of Accusing,Convicting,Condemning,and Acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge. (Miltiades) accusatus est proditionis,NEP.,1.7,5;Miltiades was accused of treason. [Fannius] C.Verrem insimulat avaritiae,C.,Verr.,I.49,128;Fannius charges Gaius Verres with avarice. Video non te absolutum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse caedis, C.,Verr.,1.28,72; I see not that you are acquitted of dishonour,but that they are convicted of murder. REMARKS.1.Judicial Verbs include a number of expressions and usages.So capi, teneri, deprehendi, se adstringere, se adligare, se obligare (ante-classical),and others,mean to be found guilty; increpare, increpitare, urgere, deferre, arguere,etc.,mean charge. So also kindred expressions : reum facere,(to make a party) to indict,to bring an action against; nomen deferre de,to bring an action against; sacrilegii compertum esse,to be found(guilty) of sacrilege. 2.For the Gen.of the Charge may be substituted nomine or crimine with the Gen.,or the Abl.with de: nomine(crimine) coniurationis damnare,to find guilty of conspiracy; accusare de vi,of violence(Gen.vis rare); de veneficio,of poisoning; de rebus repetundis,of extortion. Pestulare always has de in CICERO. We find sometimes in with Abl.; convictus in crimine,on the charge;or, inter : inter sicarios damnatus est,convicted of homicide (C.,Cluent.,7,21;Cf.Ph.,ii.4,8). 3.Verbs of Condemning and Acquitting take the Abl.as well as the Gen.of the Charge and the Punishment,and always the Abl.of the definite Fine;the indefinite Fine, quanti,dupli,quadrupli,etc.,is in the Genitive. Accusare capitis,or capite,to bring a capital charge. Damnare capitis,or capite,to condemn to death. Damnari decem milibus,to be fined ten thousand. Multare,to mulct(罰金刑にする),is always construed with the Ablative : Multare pecunia,to mulct in(of) money.(罰金を課す) Manlius virtutem filii morte multavit,QUINT.,v.ii,7;Manlius punished the valour of his son with death. 4.Destination and Enforced Labor are expressed by ad or in,but all examples are post-classical : damnari ad bestias,to be condemned(to be thrown) to wild beasts; [GENITIVE.243] ad(in) metalla,to the mines; ad(in) opus publicum,to hard labour. Voti damnari,to be bound to fulfil a vow,is Livian(except NEP.,xx.5,3,where it has a different sense). 5.Verbs of Accusing may have also the Acc.of the Thing and the Gen.of the Person : inertiam accusas adulescentium,C.,Or.,1.58,246. (あなたは若者たちを怠惰だと非難している) Genitive with Verbs of Rating and Buying. 379.Verbs of Eating and Buying are construed with the Genitive of the general value or cost,and the Ablative of the particular value or cost.(404.) Verbs of Rating are : aestimare, existimare(rare),to value; putare,to reckon; ducere(rare in CICERO),to take; habere,to hold; pendere (mostly in Comedy),to weigh; facere,to make,put; esse,to be(worth); fieri,to be considered. Verbs of Buying are : emere,to buy; vendere,to sell; venire,to be for sale; stare and constare,to cost,to come to; prostare,licere (~の値段になる) ,to be exposed,left(for sale)(売りに出ている); conducere,to hire(借る); locare,to let.(貸す) 380.1.Verbs of Rating take : Magni,much, pluris,more, plurimi,maximi,most, Parvi,little, minoris,less, minimi,least, Tanti,tantidem,so much, quanti(and compounds),how much, nihili,naught, Equivalents of nihili,nothing,are flocci,a lock of wool(一握りの羊毛) , nauci,a trifle(取るに足らない), assis,a copper(G of as 一文の値打ちもない), pili(毛ほど価値もない)(both in CATULLUS,mainly), and the like,and so also huius,that(a snap of the finger)(価値がないこと) vilius, all usually with the negative.(全部常にnonがつく) Dum ne ob malefacta,peream; parvi existumo,PL.,Capt.,682,; so long as it be not for misdeeds,let me die;little do I care.(悪事のためでないかぎり、私は死んでも構わない) [Voluptatem] virtus minimi facit,C.,Fin.,11.13,42;virtue makes very little account of the pleasure of the senses. [Iudices] rem publicam flocci non faciunt,Cf.C.,Att.,iv.15,4;the judges do not care a fig for the State.(陪審員たちは国のことなんかちっともちっとも考えちゃいない) Non habeo nauci Marsum augurem,C.,Div.,1.58,132;I do not value a Marsian augur a bawbee(=halfpenny).(私はMarsi族の占い師を全然評価しない) REMARK. Tanti is often used in the sense of operae pretium est = it is worth while. Est mihi tanti huius invidiae tempestatem subire,C.,Cat.,ii.7,15;it is worth while(the cost),in my eyes,to bear this storm of odium. NOTES.1. Aestimo is found with the Abl.as well as with the Genitive.So aestimare magno and magni,to value highly. CICERO prefers the Ablative. 2.Observe the phrases : boni(aequi bonique) facio(a colloquialism), boni consulo(an old formula),I put up with,take in good part. Non pensi habere(ducere),to consider not worth the while, is post-Augustan and rare. [244 GENITIVE.] 2.Verbs of Buying take tanti,quanti,pluris,and minoris,The rest are put in the Ablative. Vendo meum(frumentum) non pluris quam ceteri,fortasse etiam minoris, C.,Off.,iii.12,51;I sell my corn not dearer than everybody else,perhaps even cheaper. Magis illa iuvant quae pluris emuntur,Juv.,xi.16;(支払いが高くなるほど食事はおいしい。whichの先行詞はthings) things give more pleasure which are bought for more. Emit(Canius hortes) tanti quanti Pythius voluit,C.,Off.,iii.14,59;Canius bought the gardens at the price Pythius wanted. Quanti cenas ? What do you give for your dinner ? Quanti habitas ? What is the rent of your lodgings ? But: Parvo fames constat,magno fastidium,SEN.,E.M.,17,4;hunger costs little,daintiness much. An instructive shift: Emit? perii hercle: quanti? Viginti minis,TER.,Eun.,984;he bought her ? I'm undone.For how much ? Twenty minae.(せがれが宦官を買っただと? ああ、わしは破産だ。いくらしたんだ? 20ミナ(=2千ドラクマ、500万円)です。) REMARK. Bene emere,to buy cheap;いい買い物をする、安く買う bene vendere,to sell dear;いい売り物をする、高く売る male emere,to buy dear; male vendere,to sell cheap. So,too,other adverbs : melius,optime,peius,pessime. Genitive with Interest and Refert. 381. Interest and Refert take a Genitive of the Person,seldom of the Thing,concerned. Interest omnium recte facere,C.,Fin.,ii.22, 72;it is to the interestof all to do right. (正しい行動は全ての人にとって得である) Refert compositionis quae quibus anteponas,QUINT.,ix.4,44;it is of importance for the arrangement of words,which you put before which.(文の構成にとってはどの言葉をどの言葉の前に置くかが大切である) Instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns,the Ablative Singular feminine of the possessives is employed. Mea interest,mea refert,I am concerned.(私にとって重要である) NOTES.1.Refert is commonly used absolutely,occasionally with mea,etc.,seldom with the Gen.,in the classical language. 2.Instead of Apposition use the Relative : Vehementer intererat vestra,qui patres estis,liberos vestros hic potissimum discere,PLIN.,Ep.,iv.13,4;it were vastly to the interest of you parents,that your children,if possible,were taught at home.(あなた達親御さんたちにとって極めて重要なことはご子息たちをできるだけ故郷であるこの町で教育することなのです) 3.The Nom.as a subject is rare,except in PLINY'S Natural History : Usque adeo magni refert studium atque voluptas,LUCR.,iv.984.(熱中とか快楽とかはこれほどまでに重要なのである) Occasionally the Nom.of a neuter pronoun is found : Quid(Acc.) tua id(Nom.) refert ? TER.,Ph.,723;what business is that of yours? 4. Refert is the more ancient,and is employed by the poets(interest is excluded from Dactylic poetry by its form) to the end of the classical period. Interest is peculiar to prose,employed exclusively by CAESAR,and preferred by CICERO when a complement is added. [GENITIVE.245] 5.No satisfactory explanation has been given of this construction.One view is that mea refert was originally [ex] mea re fert (like ex mea re est),it is to my advantage,and that the ex was lost. Interest having much the same force,but being later in development,took the constructions of refert by false analogy.The Gen.would be but parallel to the possessive. 382.1.The Degree of Concern is expressed by an Adverb,Adverbial Accusative,or a Genitive of Value. Id mea minume refert,TER.,Ad.,88 1;that makes no difference at all to me. Theodori nihil interest,C.,Tusc.,I.43,102;It is no concern of Theodorus. Magni interest mea una nos esse,C.,Att.,xiii4;it is of great importance to me that we be together. 2.The Object of Concern is commonly put in the Infinitive,Accusative and Infinitive,ut or ne with the Subjunctive,or an Interrogative Sentence. Quid Milonis intererat interfici Clodium ? C.,Mil.,13,34;what interest had Milo in Clodius' being killed ? [Caesar dicere solebat] non tam sua quam rei publicae interesse uti salvus esset,SUET.,Iul.,86;Caesar used to say that it was not of so much importance to him(self) as to the State that his life should be spared. Vestra interest ne imperatorem pessimi faciant,TAC.,H.,1.30;it is to your interest that the dregs of creation do not make the emperor. Quid refert tales versus qua voce legantur ? Juv.,xi.182;what matters it what voice such verses are recited with ? 3.The Thing Involved is put in the Accusative with ad : Magni ad honorem nostrum interest quam primum me ad urbem venire, C.,Fam.,xvi.i,1;it makes a great difference touching our honour that I should come to the city as soon as possible. Occasional Uses. 383.1 The Genitive is found occasionally with certain Verbs of Fulness : in classical Latin principally implere,complere,egere,indigere. Piso multos codices implevit earum rerum,C.,Verr.1.46,119;Piso filled many books full of those things. Virtus plurimae commentationis et exercitationis indiget, Cf.C.,Fin.,iii.15,50;virtue stands in need of much(very much) study and practice. NOTES.1.Classical Latin shows in all cases the Abl.much more frequently than the Gen.,except in the case of indigere,where CICERO prefers the Genitive.LIVY likewise prefers the Gen.with implere. 2.Ante-classical and poetic are explere(VERG.),abundare(Luc.),scatere (LUCR.),saturare(PLAUT.), obsaturare(TER.),carere(TER.). Carere and egere have the Acc.occasionally in early Latin. 3.Other Grecisms are laborum decipitur,H.,O.,ii.13,38(reading doubtful). [246 ABLATIVE.] Regnavit populorum,H.,O.,iii.30,12.Also mirari with Gen.in VERGIL(A.,xi.126). Noteworthy is the occasional use of credere with Gen.in PLAUTUS;so once falli. 2.A Genitive of Separation,after the analogy of the Greek,is found in a few cases in the poets. Ut me omnium iam laborum levas,PL.,Rud.247;how you relieve me at last of all my toils and troubles. Desine mollium tandem querellarum,H.,O.,ii.9,17;cease at last from womanish complainings. 3.The Genitive in Exclamations occurs in a very few instances in the poets.CAT.,ix.5;PROP.,iv.(v.) 7,21;compare PL.,Most.,912; LUCAN,ii.45. On the Genitive after comparatives,see 296,N.2. ABLATIVE. 384.The Ablative is the Adverbial,as the Genitive is the Adjective case.It contains three elements : A.Where? B.Whence? C.Wherewith? In a literal sense,the Ablative is commonly used with prepositions; in a figurative sense,it is commonly used without prepositions. A.The Ablative of the Place Where appears in a figurative sense as the Ablative of the Time When. B.The Ablative of the Place Whence appears as : 1.The Ablative of Origin. 2.The Ablative of Measure. C.The Ablative of the Thing Wherewith appears in a figurative sense,as : 1.The Ablative of Manner. 2.The Ablative of Quality. 3.The Ablative of Means. REMARK.It is impossible to draw the line of demarcation with absolute exactness.So the Ablative of Cause may be derived from any of the three fundamental significations of the case,which is evidently a composite one. To these we add : D.The Ablative of Cause. E.The Ablative Absolute. I.The Literal Meanings of the Ablative. A.ABLATIVE OF THE PLACE WHERE. Ablativus Localis. 385.The Ablative answers the question Where ? and takes as a rule the preposition in. In portu navigo,TER.,And.,480; I am sailing in harbour. Pons in Hibero prope effectus(erat),CAES.,B.C.,1.62,3; the bridge OVER the Ebro was nearly finished. [ABLATIVE.247] Histrio in scaena [est],PL.,Poen.,20;the actor is ON the stage. Haeret in equo senex,Cf.C.,Dei.,10,28;the old man sticks TO his horse. REMARKS.1.Verbs of Placing and kindred significations take the Abl.with in,to designate the result of the motion : classical are ponere,to place,and compounds; locare,collocare,to put; statuere,constituere,to set; considere,to settle; defigere,to plant; demergere,to plunge; imprimere,to press upon; insculpere,to engrave(figurative); inscribere,to write upon; incidere,to carve upon; includere,to shut into. Plato rationem in capite posuit,iram in pectore locavit, C.,Tusc.,1.10,20;Plato has put reason in the head,has placed anger in the breast. (Lucretia) cultrum in corde defigit,L.,1.58,11;Lucretia plants a knife in(thrusts a knife down into) her heart. Philosophi in iis libris ipsis quos scribunt de contemnenda gloria sua nemina inscribunt,C.,Tusc.,1.15,34;philosophers write their own names on(the titles of) the very books which they write about contempt of glory. (Foedus) in columna aenea incisum,C.,Balb.,23,53;a treaty cut upon a brazen column. The same observation applies to sub : Pone sub curru nimium propinqui solis in terra domibus negata,H .,O.,1.22,21;put(me) under the chariot of the all-too neighboring sun,in a land denied to dwellings. 2.Verbs of Hanging and Fastening take ex,ab,or de. Cui spes omnis pendet ex fortuna,huic nihil potest esse certi, C.,Par.,ii.17;to him who has all his hopes suspended on fortune,nothing can be certain. 3.Here and there in is often rendered by per : C.,Fam.,1.7,6, per provincias,here and there in the provinces;V.,A.,iii.236. NOTES.1.In classical prose the use of the Abl.without in is confined to a few words,mostly phraseological.So terra,on land; mari,by sea; usually in the phrase terra marique(rarely in the reversed order),on land and sea. in terra is more common otherwise than terra. Loco and locis,especially when used with adjectives,usually omit in.The same is true of parte and partibus;so regularly dextra (parte),sinistra,laeva,etc.,on the right,on the left. LIVY uses regio like locus.The tendency,however,is observable as early as CICERO'S time to omit the in when an adjective is employed,even in words other than those given above;this tendency becomes more marked in Livy and is very strong in later Latin.The poets are free.Regard must always be had to 389. 2.The Acc.with in after verbs of Placing is very rare in classical prose.In early Latin it is more common;so with ponere,imponere,collocare. The examples with Acc.in classical Latin are principally with compounds of ponere,as imponere(usually),reponere,exponere.collocare with in and Acc.in CAES.,B.G.,1.18,7,is not in a local sense.Sometimes the Dat.is found with imponere. 3.With a verb of Rest the motion antecedent to the rest is often emphasised by construing the verb with "in and the Acc".instead of with "in and the Abl".This occurs most often with esse and habere,and seems to have been colloquial,as it is very rare in classical prose. Numero mihi in mentem fuit dis(